rs H^ 

Ai6 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR 
3UREAU OF FISHERIES 

GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 



SOME OBSERVATIONS 
% 
ON SALMON ANKTROUT IN ALASKA 



Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 627 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1907 




Pass u 

Book '4 J L. 



SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SALMON AND TROUT IN 

ALASKA. 



By F. M. Chamberlain,^ 

Naturalist, U. S. Fisheries Steamer Albatross. 



Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 627. 



^7^ 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR 

lA ,^ BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner 



SOME OBSERVATIONS 
ON SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA 



Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 627 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1907 






DEC 



COT^TEI^TS. 



Page. 

Introduction 5 

Dist inctive characters of the species 6 

Common names • 6 

Differentiating marks in adults 6 

Designations of young salmon 7 

Hybridization 10 

Resemblance of the youngs 11 

Detailed descriptions of the young 13 

Humpback salmon 13 

Dog salmon 14 

King salmon 15 

Coho salmon 16 

Sockeye salmon 17 

Steelhead trout 19 

Charr, or Dolly Vardeu trout . , 19 

The basins studied 20 

Conditions controlling the work 20 

Method used to determine migratory mnvements 21 

The Naha 22 

Character of the stream 22 

Yield of salmon 23 

Catch of young salmon in the trap 25 

Yes Bay Stream 27 

Karluk River 28 

Suitability as a spawning stream 28 

Movements of young salmon as shown by trial calches 28 

Conditions reported in British Cohiml)ia 30 

Summary of observations 31 

Young salmon in fresh water 31 

The sockeye 31 

Movement of fry above the lakes 31 

Food and feeding 32 

Food supply in relation to the hatching season 34 

Growth in fresh water 34 

Migration of yearlings ^ 36 

King salmon 40 

Age and season of migration 40 

Effect of change from fresh to salt water 42 

Food '. 43 

Coho salmon 44 

Earliest migrations -. . . . 44 

Food and habits - 44 

3 



4 CONTENTS 

Young salmon in fresh water — Oontinued. 

Dog salmon 

Humpback salmon 

Trout, and t^harr 

Sea habits of young salmon 

Notes afforded by collections and records 

The sockeye 

King salmon 

Coho 

Dog and humpback salmon 

C(jnclusions from available data 

Abundance of food 

Return of adults to fresh water 

Approach of schools 

Food and feeding 

The sockeye 

King salmon 

Coho 

Humpback and dog salmon 

Relation of food supply to number of adult salmon 

Age of adult salmon 

Salmon-marking experiments 

Methods 

Regeneration of lost parts 

Salmon in the Trocadero, at Paris 

Factors influencing return to fresh water .^ 

Sex instincts versus condition of nutrition 

The different runs 

Temperature 

Currents 

Ascent of streams 

Interval between arrival and spawning i . . 

Parent streams 

"Introduction into streams not previously lVc(|U(nte(r ' 

' 'Return of marked salmon" 

' 'Distinctive and characteristic runs' ' 

Variations in weights and measurements 

Variations in counts 

Streams not utilized by sockeyes 

Relation of size of run to spawning area 

Selection of spawning ground 

Conditions required by the sockeye 

Preferences of the king salmon 

Spawning streams chosen by the coho, dog. ami humpback salmon. . . 

Nature of spawning beds selected 

Deposit of eggs 

Completeness of spawning 100 

Percentage of natural production 101 

Relation of spawning habits to number of fish 102 

Changes incident to maturation , 104 

Return of adults to salt water 106 

Enemies of young salmon 107 

Geographical glossary - 109 



SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



By F. M. Chamberlain, 
Natiirnlist , U. S. Fisheries Steamer Albafrnss. 



INTRODUCTION. 



To assist in the solution of various problems, it was deemed desir- 
able in connection with the Alaska salmon investigation of 1903 to 
establish shore stations. The work at these stations was to comprise 
not only the study of the habits of the salmon in fresh waters and adja- 
cent bays, but, in addition, a reconnaissance of all the neighboring 
basins with reference to available hatchery sites, observation of the 
methods employed in taking fish for the canneries, an inquiry into the 
sea habitat and the factors influencing the return of the adult fish, an 
inquiry into the efficiency of the hat6heries then operated, and a gen- 
eral study of the biological features of territory immediately adjacent 
to the stations. The facilities offered by the establishments of the 
Alaska Packers' Association at Loring and at Karluk determined the 
adoption of the Naha and Karluk rivers as localities for this work.*^ 

The greater part of the data obtained at these shore stations is con- 
tained in unpublished reports. In the present paper are presented such 
of the facts as bear upon the natural history of the salmon and, with a 
view to the application of these results in future work, some notes on 
the methods used in the inquiry. Most of the material contained 
herein relates to young salmon, but the known facts in the life of the 
adult, including the spawning period, are considered, and mention is 
made also of the trout as associated with the salmon. A chapter 
differentiating and describing the species, particularly in the finger- 

a The observations in the latter region were made between the early part of May and 
September, 1903, by the late Cloudsley Rutter, naturalist of the steamer Albatross, 
assisted by M. H. Spaulding, of Startford University. At Loring the work was carried 
on during 1903 and 1904 in charge of the writer, assisted at different times by E. L. 
Goldsborough and H. D. Aller, of the Bureau of Fisheries, and H. C. Fassett, fishery 
expert on the steamer Albatross. During the summer of 1905 observations along some 
of the above lines were continued by the writer at Yes Bay, in connection with other 
workof the ^Zfeafross, with the assistance of Mr. Fassett and of J. S. Burcham,of Stanford 
University. 

5 



LOWER PART NAHA BASIN 

Based on Stenometer and Compass Survey 

B Y 

E.L.Goldsborouqh 

AND 

F.M. Chamberlain 
scale of fe et 

O lojo B«o 3oo« 



Grace Peak eioo ft. 




Clif€ 



"^CvKoosnek I . 







ortmann Hatcherj^[ 

/CO. 






6 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

ling stage, is followoMl l)y a detailed record of the field ol5servations 
on the young, and upon these tlata, which are largely statistical, is 
based the succeeding discussion of the habits of the salmon from the 
time of the migration of the young imtil the return of the adults to 
the spawning beds. Liberal use has been made in this discussion of 
the results of previous workers on the sul)ject, and, in addition to the 
collections and notes made by the shore parties in Alaska in 1903, 
1904, and 1905, all of the Albatross collections of young salmon now in 
possession of the Bureau have been studied. The concluding chapters 
of the report are given to the discussion of questions relating to the 
adult salmon, and contain in tabular form the statistics of weights 
and measurements of nearly 10,000 sockeye salmon, with anatomical 
counts of about 4,600 of these. In the entire paper the sockeye, as 
the most valuable commercial salmon of Alaska, has been made the 
main feature. 

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES. 

COMMON NAMES. 

The most common appellations of the various species as they are 
known in Alaska are used m this paper. There seems to be no reason 
why, for example, the words ''quinnat," ''chinook," and "king," 
which in a loose way pertain, respectively, to the Sacramento, Colum- 
bia, and Alaskan tschaunjtscha, should be continued to the confusion of 
readers. The "blue-back" of the Columbia differs in no specific 
essential from the "sockeye" of Alaska. Names based on characters 
common to several species, such as "red," "silver," etc., are 
especially apt to be confusing. The name "trout" as here applied 
to small fingerlings may include steelhead, rainbow, and cutthroat. 
Individual variations in both trout and salmon overlap the limitmg 
points in most characters, but in the salmon the sum of various char- 
acters sets the five American species distinctly apart. Careful exami- 
nation has so far failed to show any distinguishing character to 
differentiate the young of these trouts. Indeed, apparently no specific 
difference is constant in the adult. 

DIFFERENTIATING MARKS IN ADULTS. 

Fishermen and large handlers of salmon roughly but very accu- 
rately distinguish the adults of different species by certain obvious 
characters. The king salmon is knowft by the small black spots on 
the tail. The tail of tlie humpback is spotted, but with larger oblong 
spots. The backs of both king and coho are commonly spotted, the 
spots of the coho being as a rule smaller than those of the king, but 
these spots are not noted by fishermen. Rarely the sockeye shows a 
few spots, particularly on the tail, but these are never distinct as in 
the other species. (To the sea-run form only does this statement 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 7 

apply; the dwarf lake-dweller is spotted.) The steelhead, also a 
spotted fish, is at once recognized by its slimness, the square tail fin, 
and the deep caudal peduncle. It is difficult to pick up a steelhead 
by gi'asping the tail, wliereas a salmon may be readily so held. Sal- 
mon without spots — sockeye, dog salmon, and sometimes the coho — 
are somewhat confusing. The sockeye is usually distinguishable by 
the blue back after death, the sharp nose, and the narrow maxillary, 
while the tail fin lacks the produced pointed lobes of the dog salmon; 
also the scales are firmer and show a clean-cut paving, and the flesh 
is intensely red. The coho and dog salmon scales when silvery appear 
to be of a finer and more delicate texture than those of the sockeye. 
This is especially notable in the dog salmon. The female dog salmon 
is usually very deep, both dorsoventrally and in lateral thickness — 
''plumpness." The caudal peduncle is less compressed than in other 
species and the curves joining it to the body are shorter than in the 
coho. In the Alaska fisheries the dog-salmon males are seldom taken 
until the secondary sex characters begin to be developed — the "hook- 
bill" and dirty coloration. '^ The produced caudal rays mentioned 
above and the light color of the flesh are distinguishing marks in this 
species. The coho is distinguished from the dog by less delicate 
scales and deeper peduncle, by its small pupil, and in general by the 
occurrence of spots often at first overlooked. 

In closer examination one will consider the greater length and 
fineness of the gillrakers in the sockeye, the increased number of 
anal and branchiostegal rays in the king, the fine scales of the hump- 
back, the large and few pyloric coeca of the coho. The dog salmon 
possesses no single diagnostic mark, but difl^ers from the other 
species respectively in each character as mentioned above. Changes 
incidental to the spawming period will be noted under that head. 

DESIGNATIONS OF YOUNG SALMON. 

The lack of a distinctive terminology for the young of fishes has 
led to much confusion in the interpretation of reports of fish cultur- 
ists and investigators, more or less consequent acrimonious debate, 
and some legal entanglements. In an efl^ort to settle this matter for 
the benefit of American writers and readers, the American Fisheries 
Society in 1905 adopted the following nomenclature:'' 

Fry=fish up to the time the yolk sac is absorbed and feeding begins. 

Advanced fry = fish irova. the end of the fry period until they have reached a length 
of 1 inch. 

Fmgerlings=iish between the length of 1 inch and the yearling stage, the various 
sizes to be designated as follows: No. 1, a fish 1 inch in length and up to 2 inches; 

o " In handling a large number of dog salmon in 1907 it was observed at Juneau early 
in September that many green silvery males were being taken in the traps at Shelter 
Island and vicinity. Among these were several dog-salmon grilse." (Fassett.) 

*> Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, p. 24. 



8 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

no. 2, a fish 2 inches in length and up 4-o 3 inches; no. 3, a fish 3 inchesln length and 
up to 4 inches, etc. 

Yearling s={is[\ that are 1 year old,, but less than 2 years old from the date of hatching. 
These may be designated no. 1, no. 2, no. 3, etc., after the plan described for finger- 
lings. • 

These definitions have been generally adopted in government and 
state reports and are the ones used in this paper. The use of the 
French term "alevin" instead of "fry" for the larval stage of sal- 
monids has been abandoned here for the reason that the French 
writers do not restrict the term to that period of development of the 
young fish. Though the use of "alevin" has had the support of such 
authorities as Francis Day«, Livingston Stone^, and Cloudsley 
Rutter'^, it seems unnecessary, if not even absurd, to continue the use 
of a foreign word and give it a meaning not recognized in the language 
from which it is drawn, more especially as even the writers mentioned 
above did not make a strict application of the term. 

Some French writers'^ have apparently endeavored to make a 
technical use of the terms "alevin" and "fretin," but their example 
has not been followed by later writers, and the word alevin seems to 
be used now to designate the young of the salmon in the most general 
way.^ In the same manner the German word "Brut," or "Jung- 
brut," has about the same latitude as has been given hitherto to the 
word " fry " in English, nor does the German term " Setzlinge " admit 
of strict application.^ 

The words "larva" and "larval" have been used by many writers 
in descriptions of the young salmonids. Others would restrict these 
terms to fishes exhibiting a greater change in the stages, such as the 
eels and the ladyfish. As in neither case is there a complete meta- 
morphosis, this limitation is scarcely tenable. The terms, however, 
are not yet current among fish culturists. 

The great diversity of size among species and among individuals of 
a given species at the time of hatching, as well as the intimate 
dependence of fish growth upon environment, in some cases may 

a Francis Day, British and Irish Salmonidge, p. 43, 44, and 82, 1887. 

& Livingston Stone, Domesticated trout, p. 151, 6th ed., 1901. 

c Cloudsley Rutter, Natural history of the quinnat salmon. Bulletin U. S. Fish 
Commission, vol. xxii, 1902, p. 69 and 72. 

d Larbale trier, Albert, Traite-Manuel de Pisciculture d'eau device, p. 220, 1886: 
"Alevins. — Les jeunes poissons venant d'eclore portent le nom (Valevins. Toutefois, 
il est a remarquer que cette denomination s'applique surtout aux jeunes dessaumons, 
truites et ombres-chevalier, tant qu'ils n'ont pas resorbe la vesicule; aprfes, ils consti- 
tuent \q fretin; pour les carpes et autres cyprins, quelques auteurs prefferent I'appella- 
tion defeuilles. Cette distinction ne nous semble pas n^cessaire; d'ailleurs, nous ne 
sommes pas seul a penser de la sorte, car le nom d 'alevin tend a se generaliser." 

«C. Raveret-Wattel, La Pisciculture, vol. ii, 1907, p. 185. 

/Paul Vogel, Ausfiihrliches Lehrbuch der Teichwirthschaft, p. 334, 341, 347, 349, 
1898. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 9 

seem to introduce inconsistency into the definitions adopted. Thus 
under some circumstances a yearling charr might be found of less size 
than a salmon fry; but if is believed that by use of the above nomen- 
clature an exact interpretation of language will always be made 
possible. As in all instances involving individual characters, physio- 
logical and physical limits may overlap. Salmon fry usually begin 
to feed before the complete absorption of the yolk, a remnant of the 
yolk being persistent even for some time after the ventral walls have 
united and all outward appearance of the sac has been lost; and 
hence the migrating young of the salmon could with equal propriety 
be termed fry, since many still have yolk remnants, or fingerlings, 
since they have begun to a small degree to feed and have become 
over an inch in length. In this paper, in all cases where the schools 
contain many individuals with the embryonic fin membrane still evi- 
dent, the term "fry" is retained. In case of the humpback and dog 
salmon young which were taken in salt water, it is sometimes impos- 
sible to know whether "fingerling" or "yearling" is the proper desig- 
nation, but since it seems probable that the greater number were 
less than one year of age, the term "fingerling" is used. In the case 
of the coho the distinction is even more doubtful, but is applied with 
as much discrimination as the state of our knowledge permits. 

The terms "parr" and "grilse" have come into American use from 
the British writers on Salmonidse, but the latter designation has 
attained a meaning somewhat dift'erent from the original. 

"Grilse," as applied to the Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar) by both 
American and British writers, refers to the incompletely grown fish 
which return from the sea to the rivers to spawn. Unlike the Pacific 
salmon (OncorhyncTius) , the Atlantic salmon, both male and female, 
mature perfect sex products before completing their growth, and after 
spawning in the same manner as the grown fish of one or more years' 
greater age, return to the sea as "grilse-kelts" to continue their growth 
and return the following season (or second year after) as "salmon." 
What are known as "grilse" among Pacific salmon are the small 
males, presumably lacking at least one year of the usual age of adults 
of the species, which leave the sea for the spawning beds, mature per- 
fect milt, but after "spawning" die in the same manner as fully 
grown males. Females in no instance show this precocity. While 
there are sometimes small females among mature fish, they grade 
into the regular size in such manner that they can only be supposed 
to be those individuals which by heredity or unfavorable environ- 
ment have failed by a greater or less degree to reach the standard 
size. (See p. 86-87.) 

The term "parr" is applied in general to young fish still in fresh 
water and showing the dark bars or parr marks. They may be fin- 
gerlings, or yearlings, or even adults. The males of this stage in the 



10 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

case of the Pacific salmon in some instances mature perfect sperma- 
tozoa, but whether they spawn and die immediately afterwards is not 
known, nor is it known definitely whether fingerling parrs may develop 
the sex product. 

The terms "smolt" (frequently still spelled and pronounced 
"smelt") and "kelt" as used for stages of the Atlantic salmon 
hardly have parallels in the case of the Pacific salm'on. If any 
of the genus OncorJiynchus return to sea as kelts, it has not yet 
been fully demonstrated, and almost the entire weight of evidence 
is against the belief that it ever occurs. The term "smolt" (French 
"tacon") is applied, in contradistinction to parr, to that stage of 
Salmo solar when, in fresh water, the parr marks are lost and the 
young fish assumes its livery of silver in preparation for its descent 
to the sea." It might be used with some propriety of the yearling 
migrating sockeye, but it seems undesirable to confuse further the 
meaning of words which have their proper use only with the eastern 
species. 

HYBRIDIZATION. 

The question of natural hybridization has never been investigated, 
though it has long been well known that trout may be artificially 
crossed and fertile hybrids produced.'' That the species of salmon 
may be variously crossed with success has also been demonstrated, but 
owing to the difficulty of retaining them in fresh water until of breed- 
ing age the fertility of salmon hybrids has not been proved. Rarely 
adult salmon are taken which seem to possess characters of two spe- 
cies, but on the basis of predominating characters they have been 
assigned to one or the other of the species and the possibility of a 
hybrid ignored. The differences in time and place selected by the 
different species of salmon for spawning minimizes the possibility 
of natural hybridization; and the deficient vitality of crossed eggs 
and hybrid fry is, perhaps, sufficient to account for the failure of 
most if not all such accidental product when natural vicissitudes 
must be overcome. Moreover, the young of the different species of 
salmon are distinct and show characteristically distinct habits. This 
is not so evident, however, in Alaskan trout. Rainbows and steelheads 
spawn together in the Naha. Spawning cutthroats have not been noted 
there because they do not happen to inhabit that portion of the Naha 
which was under observation; but their segregation is inconstant. 
One species or the other may be most numerous in the lower or upper 
reaches of a stream. In the Naha basin cutthroats are more numerous 

a Day, op. cit., p. 90. 

b For a full discussion of hybridization of trout, see " British and Irish Salmonidae" 
by Francis Day, p. 47-50, 254-270, pi. x and xi, 1887, and Paul Vogel, op. cit., p. 
308, 311. 



SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 11 

in the upper sections of the system; at Yes Bay the case is reversed. 
If the fry and fingerhngs of the three recognized species possess any 
distinctive marks or habits these have so far escaped detection. 

RESEMBLANCE OF THE YOUNG. 

By one who knows the adult salmon, the young of the salmon are 
not apt to be confused with any fishes except trout. Of the fishes 
having an adipose dorsalthey are readily distinguishable from the 
capelin, smelt, and eulachon by the siphon-shaped stomach and numer- 
ous coecal appendages; the grayling is known by its high dorsal fin; 
the whitefish by its comparatively small mouth. 

The young of the true trout very greatly resemble the spotted 
species of salmon, and are distinguishable mainly by the short 
anal,fin. The salmons usually show at least 14 fully developed — 
that is, full length — rays, exclusive of the 3 to 5 short, simple (un- 
branched) rays in the front of the fin. Sometimes there are but 13, 
and in rare instances only 12, while the number may be increased to 
17 in the sockeye, which normally has 14, and in the king salmon, 
with 16 as a normal, the extreme will doubtless be still greater. The 
trout have normally 10 to 12 developed rays in the anal, but while 
this seems little separated from the number given for the salmon, as a 
rule the extra length of the fin in the latter may be noted by even a 
casual comparison. When spread the fin of the trout fingerling 
shows a rounded outline, the front rays somewhat more evenly 
graduated than in the salmon and the hinder rays much higher in 
proportion, causing it to resemble the dorsal in general outline. The 
anal of the salmon fingerling usually has a slightly concave outer 
margin, the hinder rays being shortened. The charr (Dolly Varden, 
or "salmon trout"), in addition to the characters of the anal as just 
described for the true trout, is distinguishable by the peculiarly 
mottled coloration, and in the advanced stages also by the less com- 
pressed body. 

The different species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) are not usually 
difficidt to distinguish from one another, yet individual variations 
sometimes confuse the determination. While in adults the sum of 
various differentiating characters makes it possible to decide the 
species, the late development of some characters greatly increases the 
problem in immature examples. It is possible that some local variations 
obtain; for example, sockeye fingerlings from Wood River seem to 
have a much smaller eye than fingerlings of the same size and species 
in vSoutheast Alaska. There is also much variation in the length and 
number of gillrakers in the young of this species and perhaps also in 
those of the humpback salmon. From the number of specimens at 
present available for study it can not be determined whether or not 
this variation is of geographical origin. 



12 SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 

The humpback (0. gorhuscha) is unique among the salmons in never 
developing the parr marks. It is usually entirely silvery in all the 
young stages, and is the only one of the salmons whose young up to 
some 6 inches in length, taken in fresh water, wdll show" no parr marks 
even under the scales. As possible exceptions to this must be noted 
the dwarf sockeye, whose young are as yet unknown, and perhaps 
small mature fishes returning for spawning. 

The fingerlings of the dog salmon {0. Iceta) have the parr marks 
sometimes much reduced, and those readily disappear in poorly 
preserved specimens. But where several examples are at hand the 
greater average size in the younger stages, the slightly different out- 
line, and the presence of these marks will always distinguish them 
from the humpback. 

Of the four species of strongly marked fingerlings the steelhead 
(Salmo gairdneri) may be recognized by its short anal, as noted above 
for trout, and by its small size taken at the season of migration. 
The sockeye {0. ner-kci), king (0. tscliawytscha) , and coho (0. TcisutcTi), 
being all for some time resident in fresh water and hence very vari- 
able in size, require close inspection for trustworthy identification. 
In general, in the fingerling stage the sockeye wiU be recognized by 
its more slender and tapering form, and by the more nearly circular 
outline of the parr marks, though this latter does not always hold 
true. The coho is usually distinguish-able by the orange tints of the 
lower fins (a character rarely absent) and by the white front margins 
of both anal and dorsal, but especially by the falcation of the anal 
through the extreme production or elongation of the first developed 
rays. The king, very similar to the coho in general outline, does not 
exhibit tliis extreme form of the anal, and in the specimens examined 
from the Karluk River the parr marks are larger and the marking of 
the back much more notable. In a careful examination the sockeye 
can almost always be identified by the greater length and number of 
the giUrakers, and the king by the greater number of branchiostegal 
and anal fin rays. (See detailed descriptions following.) 

In salt water the parr marks are rapidly covered by the bril- 
liancy of the silver, so that, except the king and coho, which are 
spotted, all the species soon become plain. It is not known when the 
spots of the adult humpback first appear. Whether this obliteration 
of the parr marks by the silver overcast is caused by the salt water 
may be questioned, although in- the trout, which are known to run 
indifferently in salt and fresh water, the change is marked, fish from 
salt water being much more silvery. I have taken one example of 
sockeye yearling in Jordan Lake that seems almost as silvery as the 
salt-water individuals of the same size, but it is entirely unlikely that 
it had returned from the sea."^ 

"Sec under smolt, p. 10. Day, op. cit., p. 90. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 13 

Another change with residence in the sea is a rapid increase in 
proportional depth. This is most marked in the coho. Seven exam- 
ples from the head of Naha Bay, May 31, length 98 to 117 mm., had 
depth 4.6 to 5, while in four examples taken August 2, at the cannery 
wharf, 154 to 210 mm. length, the depth is 3.75 to 4.4, which approaches 
the normal depth of the adult fish with matured sex products (3.5 to 
4 + ). 

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE YOUNG. 

The following key will assist in the identification of small fingerlings. 
In larger examples — as large fingerlings and yearlings — the specific 
characters of the adult must" be the main reliance. 

Key for Identification of Young Salmon and Trout Between 1 and 2 Inches 

IN Length. 

With adipose fin, large mouth, moderate dorsal fin, siphon-shaped stomach. 
a. Anal fin long, at least 12 developed rays, the last of these much shorter than the 

first, giving the fin a straight or concave margin or outline Salmon. 

b. Showing no distinct parr marks. Back dark in dead examples gorbitscha. 

bb. Usually with distinct parr marks. 

c. Parr marks less distinct, mainly above lateral line, body comparatively 
slender; gillrakers short, equal to less than 2 interspaces; eye small. 

keta. 
cc. Parr marks more distinct, showing below lateral line; body rather slen- 
der or deep; eye large, 
d. Gillrakers long, equal to or greater than 2 interspaces; body rather 

slender; parr marks tending to become circular nerka. 

dd. Gillrakers short; body deep; parr marks well defined bars. 

e. Parr marks narrower than interspaces, often orange coloration on 
fins; branchiostegals and anal rays few, 13 or 14; anal with 

marginal stripes kisutch. 

ee. Parr marks wider than interspaces,' branchiostegals and anal 

rays many, 15 to 16, anal not striped tschawytscha. 

aa. Anal fin short, fewer than 12 developed rays, the last not much shorter than 
the first, the entire fin thus having a convex outline or margin, the height 

great in proportion to length of base Trout and Charr. 

b. Parr marks as bars, body compressed, depth carried well toward tail. .Trout. 

bb. Parr marks as roundish blotches with mottling above and below, body less 

compressed, tapering rapidly toward tail Charr. 

The Humpback Salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum). 

The humpback fry (pi. i, ifig. 3) at the time of closure of the ventral walls average 
about 35 to 36 mm. in total length. Depth, greatest just beliind pectorals, 6 in length 
(exclusive of caudal rays) ; in ill-nourislied examples the slenderness becomes marked, 
this usually quite notable in late migrants; head about 3.5; eye 2.5 in head; nose 
round and blunt, tip of lower jaw scarcely reaching profile; contour in front of dor- 
sal fin little arched; lunation of caudal slight; pectoral rounded, 2 or a little more in 
head (measured from axil to tip of longest ray); longest ray of dorsal about 2.5 to 3; 
longest ray of anal 3 to 3.75; greatest length of ventral equal to or somewhat greater 
than greatest height of anal; gillrakers long and close-set, about 5-13 developed, 
longest equal to half diameter of pupil, and to the distance from first to fourth (3 
interspaces) at upper end of lower limb. 



14 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

In life, back green to l)ronzy_ changing to indigo bliu; upon deatli; the sides sil- 
very with brassy luster and green tints; ventral surface silvery white, usually with- 
out marks of any kind, but rarely with a few faint short parr marks above the lateral 
line; a narrow median dark line on back; membranes of caudal greenish, with black 
punctulations; dorsal similar with a narrow darker front margin; pectorals and lower 
fins colorless; iris greenish silver. 

In preserved specimens, particularly formalin specimens, a magnifier shows minute 
punctulations over almost the entire side, the back, and the dorsal and caudal mem- 
branes, and sometimes on the maxillary, chin, and throat. 

The humpback fingerling (pi. ir, fig. 2) is little changed from the fry described, 
except in size. It is the most slender species of the genus, with head long and pointed. 
In 20 examples from Karluk Beach 65 to 92 mm. in total length, the average depth 
was 5.57 in length to base of middle caudal rays, extremes 5.12 to 6; in 6 examples 83 
to 92 mm. long the depth was 5.54, head 4.4, eye 3.8 in head, pectoral a little less 
than 2, dorsal 2.26, anal a little more than 3, ventral 2.46. Branchiostegals 11-12 to 
12-13; gillrakers 10 to 13 upper limb and 16 to 19 in lower limb, longest from IJ to 
IJ times diameter of pupil and spanning 4 to 5 interspaces. The length and number 
of the gillrakers is not infrequently greater than in the sockeye fingerling, but the 
absence of visible scales in the smaller individuals, and their delicacy and small size 
in the larger of the humpbacks, as well as the more slender body outline, will distin- 
guish these fingerlings from the sockeye. In the adult humpback the gillrakers are 
11-17 to 13-19, the longest If to 2 times diameter of pupil, covering 4 interspaces. 

Colors of the fingerling: The dusky of the dorsal shows as a diffuse blotch on the 
front and distal portions, the dusky of caudal more intense toward the points of the 
lobes and at the base, but less marked than in the dog salmon; a Uttle dusky 
appears in the axil of pectoral. A few small black blotches on the upper side were 
noted in a few of some fingerlings reared at the Clackamas station. 

At this stage the scales, though very thin and delicate, may be made out with a 
magnifier or a good eye. The lateral line is a mere furrow and shows no tubing. In 
the dog salmon of the same or much less size the scales are evident and tubes of the 
lateral line distinct. 

In the Karluk specimens examined the ovaries are ribbon-like, whereas in other 
species the ovaries are more cylindrical and usually somewhat swelled at the ante- 
rior end. 

The Dog Salmon, Oncorhynrhus keta (Walbaum). 

The dog-salmon fry (pi. i, fig. 5) attains a length of about 40 mm. by the time the 
ventral walls are fully united, perhaps a gi-eater length than the fry of any other salmon 
of the genus. It resembles the humpback in general shape. Greatest depth just 
behind pectorals, 5.5 to 6 in body; head 4; eye about 2.66 in head; pectoral 1.75 to 2; 
dorsal about 2; anal about 2.5; ventral equal to anal; gillrakers little more than 
tubercles, about 5-11 to 12 may be made out, longest about one-fourth diameter of 
pupil, equal to about one interspace. 

In life, ground color bright grass green, becoming slightly darker on back and paling 
on lower side to an overcast on the silver; occasionally a brassy luster on back; lower 
parts silvery with the palest green iridescence; back with very fine black punctula- 
tions, fusing into numerous small black spots about the size of pupil from nape to base 
of caudal; a median dark line on back in front of dorsal, not marked back of dorsal. 
The punctulations cover sides to axil of pectoral in front, to about halfway between 
lateral line and ventrals, and surround caudal peduncle, bt>coming coarse and scat- 
tered below. The parr marks, from G to 12 in number, lie mainly above lateral line. 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 15 

Pectoral and lower tins uncolored, caudal and dorsal greenish, fading distally, black 
punctulations on membranes, dorsal with blackish front margin. Iris brassy. 

In preserved specimens the general color is silvery, with the dusky shades as 
described for the humpback, but never so dark on the back. Parr marks along lateral 
line elliptical or oval in shape, narrower and longer (deeper) toward the head; greatest 
diameter equal to eye, usually more numerous and naiTower than in the sockeye, and 
not becoming bars as in the coho and king; also more subdued by the silver overcast 
than in the two last-mentioned species ; along median dorsal line a row of small blotches 
sometimes coalescent into a mere stripe, the area lietween this and the parr marks 
usually spotted with round dots less than half diameter of pupil; occasionally a few 
broken blotches below. Dorsal and caudal membranes and first ray of pectoral dusky; 
other fins immaculate. 

The dog-salmon fiiigerling (pi. ii, fig. 3) is less slender in outline than the humpback, 
which, except that the dog salmon is obviously scaled, it otherwise resembles. 

In 26 examples from Whidby Island, taken June 30, 1903, 78 to 122 mm. total length, 
sexes in equal numbers, the average depth is 5.1 m body (4.87-5.4); head 4.4; eye 3.3 
in head; pectoral 2—; dorsal 2+; anal 3; ventral 2.4; developed anal rays 13 and 14; 
branchiostegals 13-13 to 14-15; gillrakers 8-12 to 9-15, longest about equal to pupil, 
spanning about 3 interspaces (sometimes only 2); scales 130 to 146, average 139. In 
specimens from Dvmdas Bay, July 24, 67 to 103 mm., the gillrakers are somewhat 
shorter, f to once the diameter of pupil, covei-ing 2 to 3J interspaces; scales 129 to 136, 
average 132. 

In fingerlings from Naha Bay, July 2, 50 to 65 mm. in length, the parr marks are still 
apparent. In sea-run examples from Karluk Beach, July 24, up to 100 mm., they 
scarcely show through the scales, but are quite evident when the scales are stripped. 
The other coloration much as in the late fry stage; chin dusky; several rays of the 
pectoral with punctulations; tip of dorsal, except last ray, distinctly black; tip of 
caudal black, marked even in fork, this black tip of caudal distinguishing them 
roughly from the humpback of the same size, though the scaling must be the final test. 

The King Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum). 

The young king salmon (pi. i, fig. 4, figure and description from Karluk River speci- 
mens) at the time of the complete union of the ventral walls are from 35 to 37 mm. aver- 
age length. In general outline they are less slender and tapering than the humpback 
or dog salmon. The depth, greatest in the region of front of dorsal, 4.25 in body; head 
about 3.33 to 3.5; eye 2.5 in head; pectoral 1.75, vertical fins high, dorsal 1.5; anal 2; 
ventrals 2.33; gillrakers about 4-11, short and well separated, longest equal to one-half 
diameter of pupil, spanning 1 interspace. The increased number of branchiostegal 
and anal fin rays (about 16 in each) help to distinguish this species. 

Ground color of specimens in alcohol silvery, and except breast and in front of ven- 
trals, with fine punctulations; about 9 to 12 long narrow parr marks usually equal to or 
greater in width than the silvery interspaces and lying about equally on either side of 
lateral lure; a dark median dorsal line in front of dorsal fin, not so evident in caudal 
region ; between this and the parr marks numerous round or oval blotches about size of 
pupil, the larger of these alternating with the parr marks so that it gives the upper end 
(*f these the appearance of being symmetrically margined by the silvery of the ground 
color; caudal lunation comparatively deep. In the Sacramento the caudal some- 
times has a reddish tinge, and shades of yellow may appear on the ventrals and anal. 

Yearlings (pi. in) from Karluk Lagoon, about 137 mm. long, have the follow- 
ing measurements: Depth 4.4; head 4; eye 3.5-4; pectoral 1.6-1.7; dorsal 1.8-2; 
anal 2.3-3; ventral 2.2-2.3; greatest depth about midway between pectoral and 
dorsal, gracefully tapered to tip of the rather sharp nose. Gillrakers 10-13; longest 
equal to or less than diameter of pupil, spanning about 2 interspaces. (In adults 
10731—07 2 



16 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

from Oregon the longest gillraker is about If to 2 times diameter of pupil, covering 
3 interspaces.) 

Color silvery, dark above; top of head, back, and sides to lateral line more or less 
thickly spotted with small roundish black spots about half diameter of pupil and 
less; distal portion of dorsal dusky, sometimes nearly black; caudal dusky; inner 
side of outer rays of pectoral dusky; anal and ventrals unmarked; parr marks visible: 
under silver. Distinguished at sight from coho by the longer anal and the usually 
somewhat smaller eye, but definitely by the more numerous and finer branchioste- 
gals and greater number of pyloric cceca. 

The Coho Salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutrh (Walbaum). 

The coho fry (pi. i, fig. 6) at the time of hatching is about 27 mm. in total length, 
the sac about 10 mm. The greater size and the peculiar shape of the yolk sac distin- 
guish the coho from the sockeye. 

These fry average about 35 mm. t^tal length at closure of ventral walls. The ven- 
tral membrane on either side of the ventral fins is persistent for a long period. In 
general shape the coho fry and small fingerlings much resemble the king salmon. 
Greatest depth just in front of dorsal, about 5 in body; thence diminishing toward 
nose; dorsal outline arched; head about 3.75; eye 2.5 in head; pectoral 2; vertical fins 
high, the front rays in both soon becoming extended; dorsal about 1.75; anal 2; ven- 
trals 2.75; caudal lunation shallow. Gillrakers very short, little more than tubercles.^ 
about 5-10. 

In Steelhead Creek, May 29, migrating fry had a ground color of smoky green 
with brassy iridescence, black punctulations everywhere except on throat and breast; 
these punctulations finest and most numerous on back, becoming coarser and 
more scattered on lower side; lower side with a red overshade or iridescence; mem- 
branes of fins with punctulations, but on pectoral and ventral these punctulations 
only close to body; remainder of these fins brownish orange; caudal-fin membranes 
orange ground, the fine black punctulations giving a dark effect, upper and lower 
(dorsal and ventral) margins clear brown, most pronounced on rudimentary rays, 
membrane between ray branches colored and dotted as between rays; membranes 
of dorsal with very pale orange shade deepening on rear, front with black margin 
equal in width to a central membrane, sometimes a narrow orange margin in front 
of this; anal membranes distinctly orange with punctulations as in caudal, these 
becoming close near margin at extremity of long rays and forming a black band about 
equal in width to two rays and joining membrane, tips of these rays and membranes 
white, giving the fin a white front margin and a black submargin equal to two or 
three times the width of white; adipose with orange front and top margin; dentary 
siu-face of mandible orange-brown at tip; maxillary uncolored, with scattered punctu- 
lations; iris bronzy to brassy; cheek with bronzy ground; opercular face dark; parr 
marks one-third to one-fourth as wide as long, increasing posteriorly in relative width 
(antero-posterior), and extending about equally above and below lateral line, the 
first partly under opercular flap, the last roundish and usually about under adipose 
fin, the penultimate sometimes under adipose; a narrow dark median line on back; 
smaller round spots on back sometimes alternate with parr marks. Viewed from 
above in water, the back shows ground color bronzy, with a few scattered dark spots,* 
narrow supraorbital stripes ending at nostril, the median dark line showing distinctly 
with bronze bands of about equal width on either side. 

In alcohol entire surface dusky, with punctulation except on a little of breast, 
some of the lower surface of head, and the paired fins. Parr marks present as 8 or 9 
short and narrow bars, about one-half the width of the interspaces (variable but not 
usually so broad as in the king), and equal in length (depth) to about half depth of 
body, lying about evenly divided by lateral line, becoming more nearly round toward 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 17 

the caudal ; a dark blotch at base and front of dorsal ; tips of front anal rays immacu- 
late, forming a distal white stripe along front of fin. 

A fingerling 58 mm. in length (pi. ii, fig. 4) has a depth of 4 in body; head 3.5; 
eye 3 in head; pectoral 1.5; dorsal (longest ray) 1.33; anal 1.25; ventral 2 (some 
of the first dorsal and anal rays are variably produced) ; gillrakers, 8-14, longest one-half 
diameter of pupil, spanning about 2 interspaces. 

Markings much as in earlier stages, but with additional markings on back. Short 
oval or triangular blotches appear between the parr marks, and numerous small, 
round, dark spots become irregularly scattered over entire upper surface, including 
top of head. The orange tints of the fry and smaller fingerlings largely disappear at 
about this size, the time of the change varying greatly in different localities. In the 
same degree the falcation of anal and dorsal shows local and individual variation, but 
it is always notable. The tips of the first 4 to 6 rays of both these fins, with the outer 
membrane, retain the orange color or become white, to form a stripe about half the 
width of the pupil at the margin of the fin ; this lies upon a submarginal band of black 
of similar width. The distinctness of these bands is variable, but in no case are they 
entirely absent in fingerlings of 40 to 100 mm., or even more, when in fresh water. 
At a certain point the elongated rays seem to stop growth in extension while the 
remainder of the fin continues its normal increase in size until the permanent form 
has been reached, after which all the growth proceeds together. Examples of 130 to 
150 mm. show traces of the peculiarity of both growth and color, but later there is no 
variation from the normal shape as found also in the king. 

A sea-run yearling (pi. iv) from Karluk Beach, June 18, 1903, 150 mm. in length, 
had depth 4.75; head 4; eye 3.66 in head; snout nearly equal to eye; pectoral 1.5; 
dorsal 2; anal 2.8; ventral 2; gillrakers 9-14, longest equal to diameter of pupil, 
spanning about 3 interspaces (in adults from 1^ to 2 times pupil, spanning 2f to 4 inter- 
spaces). Life colors (Rutter) "back olive brown, thickly spotted with black, dorsal 
dusky, except last ray is pale. Caudal yellowish by transmitted light, tip dusky, the 
dusky portions greater on lobes; pectoral yellowish; parr marks distinct; iris some- 
wlijit golden." In alcohol 11 parr marks quite distinct, a little broader than inter- 
spaces and depth al^out half depth of body, spots on back round, the largest about J 
diameter of pupil, covering top of head and back as far as lateral line — extending on to 
upper edge of caudal; anal and pectorals with very few punctulations, lower parts 
silvery. 

The Sockeye, Oncorhynclms nerka (Walbaum). 

The sockeye fry at time of hatching measures some 24 mm. in total length, the sac 
itself about 9 mmi, varying in individuals. The yolk sac is approximately cylindri- 
cal in general outline, sometimes slightly deeper (dorso-ventrally) at the posterior 
end. It has little tendency to become pointed at the posterior ventral extremity, 
as in the coho. 

The ventral walls become completely united and the yolk disappears externally 
when the young sockeye measures about 32 mm. in total length. At this stage both 
dorsal and ventral outlines are arched (the dorsal the more in alcoholic specimens 
by reason of the contraction of the softer ventral tissues). The greatest depth is 
near the middle of the body just in front of the dorsal, about 4.75 to 5.5 in length 
to base of caudal rays (end of scaling). In poorly nourished examples the depth 
is greatly decreased in proportion to the length. Head about 3.75; nose rounded, 
blunt, length about equaling half diameter of eye; eye about 2.5 in head; pectoral 
and dorsal about 2; anal and ventral about 2.66 in head; gillrakers 5-14, in length 
about two-fifths diameter of pupil, spanning 2 to 3 interspaces. 

General color silvery, becoming dusky above. There is less tendency to metallic 
iridescence than in the coho, and the fins do not show the orange tints of the latter. 



18 SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 

The ventral surface is iniinaculatc, including all the lower fins. The fine punctula- 
tions with which the upper parts are shaded extend from just behind the gill-openings 
to slightly below the lateral line and posteriorly approach more and more the ventral 
surface until, at the caudal peduncle, they reach the lower fin membrane. The indi- 
vidual punctulations are larger and more separated on the lower side; the close setting 
above gives th(> back a marked dusky color. The membranes of the rayed dorsal and 
the caudal are similarly dusky. A single row of small blotches sometimes merging 
together occupies the median dorsal line from top of head to base of caudal. Along 
the lateral line or a little below it anteriorly the parr marks appear, from seven to ten 
small, rounded, or elliptical blotches about half the diameter of the eye and more or 
less evenly distributed between the gill-openings and base of caudal ; the depth of color 
and the approach to circularity of outline increase toward the caudal region; a dark 
spot on the opercle and one at the base of caudal complete this row. A second row of 
similar but smaller blotches sometimes appears between the lateral row and the median 
dorsal line. In transparent specimens the black of the inner ventral linings may show 
through slightly. Tip of chin dusky. 

The small fingerlings (pi. i, fig. 2), 35 to 50 mm. in length, show some change in 

shape. The caudal peduncle becomes slim in propor- 

/ _ 2 ^-^''"^ \^-0i^ to the length and the general outline is more 

^^^"iX^ Il^^^^^r^ \ tapering; the greatest depth, at a point about midway 

\J \y^ ^^^O between base of pectorals and front of dorsal, is about 
<?s, 5 in body; both ventral and dorsal outlines are more 

^— <L___,2_^--^='''^ nearly straight to base of caudal than in small fry. In 

(*W^V) H^^^^ \ ^^^S^^'" ^'^^ well-fed examples the ventral outline is 

^^^^^^=iU=-A""T^^^r\/^ ^*-~0 slightly more arched. In poorly nourished and 

unthrifty examples the greatest depth is through base 
Sockeye fingerlings. Upper figure a . ^ i ^u i i j i i i j i +u- 

poorly nourished example, lower? of pectorals, the caudal peduncle looks deep and thin 

well nourished. ^j^ comparison, and the depth in front of dorsal is 

less than one-fifth the body length. (See text figures.) 

In markings the general duskiness encroaches on the ventral region, only the belly, 
breast, and lower head parts (except the chin) remaining immaculate. The median 
dorsal marking may be a row of blotches, or these may merge into a nearly solid stripe, 
which in individuals of 50 mm. up usually fades into the general duskiness. In most 
of the smaller individuals the parr marks are rounded blotches little larger than the 
pupil, varying in number from 8 to 12 and more or less evenly distributed along the 
lateral line. The second row above may or may not be present. 

Specimens from Karluk between 40 and 50 mm. long show considerable variation from 
the markings just described. The parr marks are elliptical, about twice as deep as 
wide, except over anal and on peduncle. These long bars are mainly helow the lateral 
line. They much resemble the markings of the dog salmon. These specimens also 
vary from the more southerly examples in the smallness of the eye and in the fewer 
and shorter gillrakers. Their identification is not absolute. 

At about 80 mm. length (pi. ii, fig. 1) the fingerling assumes the graceful outlines 
of the adult, depth 4.5-5 in body, average 4.6; head 3.66-4.12, average about 4; eye 
nearly 3 in head, pectorals 1.5-2, average 1.66; dorsal 1.66-2.3, average 1.8; anal 
about 2.5; ventralsabout 2; gillrakers very variable, 12-20 to 13-22; longest f to once 
diameter of eye, spanning 3 to 6 interspaces. In fresh water the general color is silvery 
over dark. Punctulations cover the entire body, except a narrow area between chin 
and ventrals. The parr marks are more or less elliptical, with a depth about equal 
to diameter of eye and almost obliterated by the silvery. Occasional fresh-water 
specimens wholly silvery, sea-run individuals probably always so. 

A yearling (pi. v), from Karluk Beach, 165 mm. in length, had depth 5; head little 
more than depth, 4.5; eye about 3.5 in head; pectoral 1.5; dorsal 2.2; anal 2.66; ven- 
tral 2; gillrakers as in adult — that is, having about the same proportion to diameter 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 19 

of pupil. In life "back grassy green, thickly spotted ; a dark blotch on distal half of 
anterior dorsal rays, posterior rays colorless; tips of caudal lobes dusky; lower fins 
colorless; no trace of parr marks; iris washed with golden" (Rutter). In alcohol the 
dark of the back reaches the lateral line in front, then rises under dorsal to about the 
fifth row of scales above lateral line, and on caudal peduncle approaches the line 
to about third row of scales. Numerous round dark spots about one-third diameter 
of pupil on back from nape to caudal, sometimes falling into about 2 irregular rows on 
each side, with others scattered, sometimes wholly irregular and often continuing on 
to top of head ; the interspaces about twice size of spots. Dusky of dorsal includes all 
but tips of last 3 or 4 rays; axil and inner surface of upper part of pectoral slightly 
dusky; tip of chin and adipose fin dusky. Wheii scales are removed, round parr marks 
may be noted in specimens up to 200 mm. in length. 

Almost from the first free-swimming stage the sockeye may be distinguished from 
any species except the humpback by the length, number, and fineness of the gillrakers. 
The humpback at times exhibits a greater number of gillrakers, and these of greater 
proportionate length, than the sockeye from the same locality. In this case, however, 
the small sockeye fingerlings may be recognized by the color, and the larger by their 
coarser scales, greater depth, and larger eye. 

The Steelhead Trout, Salmo gairdneri (Richardson). 

There are three accepted species of trout in Alaskan waters — the steelhead, rainbow, 
and cutthroat. I have been able to find but one type of fry, and am even unable to 
find distinguishing marks in the young of known species grown in the hatcheries. The 
fry here described 1 have called steelhead, for the reason that it is found in abundance 
migrating to the sea from streams in which large numbers of steelheads are known to 
spawn. The description may be taken in general as applying also to the rainbow and 
cutthroat trout fry. 

This fry (pi. i, fig. 7), at the time of closure of the ventral walls, averages between 
30 and 32 mm. in total length. Depth about 6; head 3.5 in body; eye 3 in head; pec- 
toral 1.66; dorsal 2; anal 2.25; ventral 2.5. Head pointed; greatest depth through 
middle in front of dorsal; gillrakers very short and well separated; about 5-10 to 
be made out by counting the faintly developed tubercles, longest about one-third 
diameter of pupil, equal to or less than one interspace. 

General color silvery, sometimes with l^rassy iridescence, parr marks 9 to 12, deep 
and narrow, usually dark and contrasting sharply with the silvery interspaces. Body, 
except belly in front of ventrals, and fins, except the paired ones, with punctulations; 
dorsal with front rays black; anal with posterior rays less shortened than in salmon, 
which character with the fewer rays gives the fin a more rounded appearance 

The Charr, or Dolly Varden Trout, Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). 

The charr fry (pi. i, fig. 8) has undergone complete absorption of the yolk sac 
at 26 mm. length. It is slender, with greatest depth through pectoral, much 
resembling in shape and general appearance the larger sockeye of a somewhat later 
stage. Depth about 5 in body; head 3.5; eye 3 in head; pectoral 1.5; dorsal 1.66; 
anal 2.25; ventral 2.5; gillrakers about 4 to 7 or 8, somewhat longer in proportion than 
in the steelhead, longest equal to about one-half eye, equal to or slightly greater than 
an interspace. 

Of lighter general ground color than the steelhead, the parr marks occurring as 7 to 10 
round blotches about the size of the eye, along lateral line; other similar blotches on 
back. Lower fins immaculate. Readily distinguishable by the slim tapering shape, 
general brownish color, size and shape of blotches, and anal fin. 

In fingerlings, about 40 mm. long, depth about 4.5, greatest between dorsal and 
pectoral; head 3.66; eye nearly 4 in head; pectoral 1.4, dorsal 1.6; anal and ventral 



20 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

about 1.87; gillrakors about 5-9, the longest about equal to diameter of the very small 
pupil and spanning one interspace. An irregular row of alternating blotches below 
the parr marks, faintly i^rcsent in fry, becomes more distinct and the back becomes 
thickly mottled with spots about size of jiupil; otherwise the color much as in fry. 
This species is unusually thick (laterally) in proportion to depth, and is not so much 
flattened as the salmons and true trouts. This character becomes noticeable in the 
fingerlings, and together with the peculiar mottling makes them readily distinguish- 
able without counting the anal. 

THE BASINS STUDIED. 

The two regions from whicli most of the original material in this 
paper is derived are the basins of the Naha and the Karluk rivers. 
From the Naha as a central locality, the conditions existing in 
adjacent basins received some attention, and salmon from Yes Bay, 
Karta Bay, Moira Sound, Boca de Quadra, and the streams of Annette 
Island were examined. These latter waters have been described in 
the reports of the operations of the steamer Albatross in Alaska." 
The accompanying sketch map of the Naha region illustrates typical 
conditions as found in most of the smaller sockeye streams in Alaska. 

CONDITIONS CONTROLLING THE WORK. 

The Naha as an observation station is ill adapted for a small party 
on account of its complexity and extent, though rendered advanta- 
geous by the Alaska Packers' Association establishment and the 
generous assistance extended by that corporation. The successful 
conduct of any inquiry, however, rec[uires either a sufficient number 
of observers to carry on the work simultaneously at all parts of the 
area to be covered, or a sufficiently small area to permit the party 
available to cover the entire territory readily; and of indispensable 
importance in fishery investigations is sufficient apparatus, such as 
boats, suitable nets, etc., to apply continuously any given line of 
experiment or study. For the best work on the Naha the absolute 
control of at least 4 boats would have been necessary, and even with 
this complement, the distance from the nearest habitable quarters 
at the mouth of the stream to the spawning ground of the fish is such 
that the round trip is practically a day's journey, leaving little time 
for observations en route or at the extremity of the trip. Another 
complicating feature, objectionable from one standpoint, desirable 
from another, is the presence of the brackish-water lagoon. Had it 
been possible readily to reach the mouth of the river above the lagoon, 
the trap could have been set there, as was to be desired; the lagoon 

o Moser, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xviii, 1898, p. 1-178, and vol. xxi, 
1901, p. 173-398, and 399*-401*. It should be noted that in the descriptions of 
the Moira Sound region, vol. xviii, p. 78-80, the descriptions for Kegan and Old 
Johnson stream have been transposed ; the figures for the catch, however, are correctly 
assigned. 



SALMON AND TROUT IK ALASKA. 21 

would thus have been a part of the salt-water approaches. Under 
the circumstances, however, it was necessary to operate the trap at 
the rapids below the lagoon, where it was subject to the rise and fall 
of tide. This necessity may to a certain extent have altered results. 

METHOD USED TO DETERMINE MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS. 

The apparatus used for taking the migrating young was a sort of 
fyke trap made from a regulation collecting seine used by the Bureau, 
and was similar in principle of operation to the gear used by Rutter 
in the California investigation and by Babcock in the Fraser (p. 30). 
The conversion of the seine into a trap was accomplished by sewing on 
a bag of coarse bobbinet to surround and extend beyond the netting 
bag of the seine. This latter was then opened and a small funnel of 
bobbinet laced to the opening. The large bobbinet bag was closed 
at the hinder end by tying with a cord, so that it could be readily 
opened and the contents shaken into a bucket. With a short seine 
pole and bridle at either end the contrivance was then ready to hang 
across the current for operation. For successful results the current 
must be sufficiently rapid to keep the bag distended — otherwise the 
fish will not enter it — yet not strong enough to burst the fabric. In 
water too swift the smaller fish are pressed against the web and drowned. 
The rise and fall of the tide at station 2 in the Naha vitiated the sta- 
tistics to a degree. With such a contrivance careful weight must be 
given to the state of the water. Muddy, swift water as at flood time 
always shows an increased catch, due doubtless in part to the favor- 
able influence on the operation of the apparatus as well as to increased 
movement of the fish. 

This apparatus as ordinarily operated is very defective. Estimates 
of numbers of migrating fish based upon its results can be only very 
distantly approximate. In no case can the entire current of a large 
stream be occupied, and only in exceptional cases will the net at all 
times reach from top to bottom. In the Naha and Sacramento tests, 
the lead line was frequently some distance from the bottom ; in the 
Fraser River inquiry, however, it appears that the net was set on the 
bottom. Only by repeated tests can it be determined on which side 
of the stream the net will be most effective. On the Sacramento I 
made a few tests as to its efficacy at the side and center of the chan- 
nel, respectively, but results were not definite, since other factors 
necessarily entered into the question. A complete experiment would 
require several of these traps to be operated simultaneously in differ- 
ent parts of the stream. In any current where fine-meshed fabric 
can hold, moreover, the stronger fish can breast the stream and escape. 
This defect of the device used is called to attention by Mr. Babcock 
in his report for British Columbia. The objections stand only against 
estimates of total number of migrants based on the catch made. 



22 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

THE NAHA. 
CHARACTER OK THE STREAM. 

The Naha River rises in the upper central part of Revillagigedo 
Island, Southeast Alaska. Its extreme upper part has not been 
explored, but doubtless possesses no characters of note differing from 
the usual mountain stream of that region. As a whole the stream 
is somewhat peculiar in the large number of lakes (four) in its course, 
but the total surface area of these four lakes is no greater in propor- 
tion to the volume of the stream than may be found in other instances, 
for example, the Karta River. The upper two of these lakes are of 
no great importance to the present salmon run, since a fall of some 
30 feet, together with a series of broken cascades below the ower one, 
now prevents the ascent of the salmon. The two lakes are connected 
by a short reach of the stream which offers no obstruction to the pas- 
sage of fish between them. The lower one, known as Patching Lake, 
is well stocked with cutthroat and Dolly Varden trout, and seems to 
contain also the dwarf form of the sockeye. In the spring of 1903 
a plant of sockeye fry was made in the connecting stream, making 
the original presence of the dwarf form subject to some doubt. 
Patching Lake is the largest of the four lakes and is probably the 
deepest. It is between 2 and 3 miles in length and less than one-half 
mile in width. Depths of 140 feet have been sounded. 

In the lower course of the river, and yet accessible to salmon, are 
two lakes, Heckman Lake, about H miles in length, and Jordan Lake, 
of about 1 mile. At the mouth of the stream is a brackish-water 
lagoon, about 1 mile in length, known as Roosevelt Lagoon. This 
latter receives the salt water from Naha Bay at ordinary and spring 
tides. Its surface water shows brackish everywhere except in time 
of flood waters, and the greater depths are doubtless quite salt. 

The greatest depth in Heckman Lake is about 130 feet, in Jordan 
Lake somewhat less. The area and shallowness of these lakes, 
together with their exposed situation, admit of an early acquisition 
of high surface temperatures. Fortmann Hatchery is located at the 
head of Heckman Lake adjacent to the most important natural 
spawning ground of the sockeye. These beds are about 6 miles from 
tide water, one-half of this distance being occupied by the lagoon 
and lakes. As originally found they were about 400 yards in length 
and of perhaps 15 or 20 yards average width, the whole more or less 
covered with logs and drift. In addition to these, small parts of the 
section of the river connecting Jordan and Heckman lakes were used ; 
also McCune Creek at the upper end of Heckman Lake, and unim- 
portant areas of Emma Creek, a small tributary of Jordan Lake. All 
of these beds are also frequented by the coho and humpback salmon, 
but the greater number of these two species do not reach Heckman 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 



28 



Lake. Their most prolific grounds are that section of the main river 
between the lagoon afld Jordan Lake, a large area being afforded by 
the stream just below and immediately above Dorr Falls. In addi- 
tion they occupy the many small creeks which enter the lagoon, the 
river^ and the lakes. King and dog salmon enter the Naha in too 
small numbers to indicate their preferences, but king salmon have 
been seined at the hatchery, and it is probable that in all such streams 
they go as far upstream as possible. But one king salmon fry was 
taken during the present work, that from the lower river on June 
11, 1903. A few dog-salmon fry were noted migrating from Gibson 
Creek. They formed a scarcely notable percentage in the catches in 
the main stream. 

A considerable part of the shores of both Heckman and Jordan 
lakes is of gravel and apparently not unsuitable for "nests." It 
may l^e that when the stream was crowded the shores were used, but 
at no time were sockeyes observed to spawn about the lake shores 
as in other basins. The portion of the stream between these two 
lakes was not inspected, but the area of suitable ground for beds is 
said to be small, the channel being very rough. A few cohos spawn 
just above Jordan Lake, but inspection by the hatchery superintend- 
ent has shown that the sockeyes do not frequent this section of the 



river. 



YIELD OF SALMON. 



As a sockeye stream the Naha has been one of the most productive 
of the smaller streams of Southeast Alaska, a fact which may be due 
in part to its having been so unremittingly fished. The long, narrow 
bay which receives the river furnished excellent fishing grounds, and 
the shallow upper end an excellent foundation for a fence. In the 
following table is shown in round numbers the yield of the Naha 
and the important adjacent streams for each year from 1887 to 1900: 

Yield of the Naha and Important Adjacent Streams, 1887-1900. 



Year. 


Naha. 


Yes Bay,. 


Karta Bay. 


Quadra. 


Total. 


1887 


75,000 
75,000 
76,000 
68,000 
96,000 
34,000 
49,000 
56,000 
15,000 
43, 000 
16,000 
18,000 
13,000 
15,000 








75,000 


1888 








75,000 


1889 








76,000 


1890 








68,000 


1891 








96,000 


1892 








34, 000 


1893 


26, 000 
22,000 
42,000 
46,000 
61,000 
44,000 
69,000 
80,000 






75,000 


1894 






78, 000 


1895 




97,000 
137,000 
65,000 
98,000 
166,000 
175,000 


154, 000 


1896 


84,000 
23,000 
106, 000 
56,000 
63,000 


310, 000 


1897 


165, 000 


1898 


266, 000 


1899 


314,000 


1900 : 


335,000 





24 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

The Catch of Sockeyes prom the Naha River, in Thousands. 





1887 


1888 


1889 


1890 


1891 


1892 


1893 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 


1899 


1900 




90 






























90 


80 


























80 


70^ 
60 
50 
40 


































70 


- 
















60 

















- 






SO 














40 


30 
20 














30 












20 


10 


1 




1 




1 


1 


10 




1 





The large catch in 1891 was due to close fencing as well as abun- 
dance of fish. It will be noted, as shown in the accompanying block 
table, that the declme in numbers, while in general gradual, is most 
marked in four-year periods after this date. It also will be remarked 
that the heavy catches do not coincide in the different basins, point- 
ing to a shifting of the general run under different circumstances. 
Conclusions based on the commercial catches, however, require not 
only accuracy in the statistics, but details as to the efforts made to 
take all fish arriving in the given waters. These details, unfortu- 
nately, we do not have. Yet these figures undoubtedly indicate the 



SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 



25 



possibility of fishing out a given stream, and with this is*carried the 
imphcation that at least the greater part of the supply of any stream 
must be derived from the fry produced in that stream. 



CATCH OF YOUNG SALMON IN THE TRAP. 

To determine facts regarding the migration of the young salmon 
into salt water, a trap such as is described on page 21 was placed 
below Hirsch Rapids on the Naha, at station 2 (see map, p. 112). The 
location was chosen on account of its accessibility, as stated above. 
The catch made by this apparatus is shown in the following table 
(no. 1). As the trap was operated in salt water, the catches included 
sticklebacks, perch, blennies, occasional trout, etc., which are grouped 
under "Other fishes." 

Table 1. — Catch made by Trap at Station 2, Naha Bay, 1903 and 1904. 





Sur- 
face 
tem- 
pera- 
ture. 


Sockeye. 


Coho. 


Hump- 
back, 
fry. 


Dog 

sal- 
mon, 
fry. 


Other 
fishes. 




Date. 


Year- 
lings. 


Fry. 


Year- 
lings. 


Fry. 


Remarks. 


1903. 
Apr. 21 


°F. 










695 
2,830 

150 

3,825 

1,175 

2,200 

260 

275 

40 


"'"i" 

'(?)" 

(?) 

...... 


17 

(0) 

(?) 
9 
1 
24 
(?) 
(?) 
15 






40 
39 










Net broken by large stoelhead, and 

catch partly lost. 
Net slipped. 

River rising; 15-foot net. 
Net upset by tide. 
River falling. 
15-foot net. 

Do. 

Do. 


23 










28 










May 11 


40 

■""■45" 

'"'"44' 
51 
52 
52 
53 
53 










17 
23 
24 
June 2 
11 


480 
800 
375 
6.50 


1 
1? 

'"is" 


19 
40 

(?) 
(?) 


(ft) 
(?) 


13 


3 
2 

1 
3 








3 
1 






15-foot net. 


14 








'"c's 
c4 


2 


Do. 


July 1 






i 
1? 




2 








Aug. 12 

1904. 
May 17 












'444 

43§ 

45 

------ 

m 
so 
m 

48 
48 

'""56" 
49i 
52 
51i 

"""56^ 
51 
52 
5U 
49J 
49 
50 

""59" 

00| 


10 

99 

863 

334 

556 

674 

408 

349 

247 

34 

91 

211 

732 

597 

832 

692 

108 

1,157 

13 

186 

83 

50 

39 

15 

11 

4 








7 
223 
2,365 
585 
52 
SO 
20 




4 

9 
89 
100 
40? 
100 
55 
100 
30 
55 
65 
135 
45 
40 
40 
20 
21 
52 

1 

6 
17 

1 
30 
25 

3 

7 

1 

2 




18 








25-foot net. 


19 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 




i2 

104 

58 

25 

12 

6 

fi 

12 

10 

.50 

31 

3 

6 


i 

""2 
■-■3 


River falling. 


26 
27 


3 




Spring tides. 


28 








29 

31 

June 1 

2 

3 


""z 

8 
3 


1 
1 
2 
5 






4 
5 

7 




1 
5 


...... 

1 
2 
2 


1 

18 
1 
5 




No reason known for small catch. 


8 






2S-foot net. 


10 








13 




1 








18 


6 

1 








22 












26 












30 














July 9 






6 

7 








10 














Sept. 2 



































a Several. 



b Few. 



e- Not fry but parrs, average SO mm. 



26 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

During fche season of 1903 a 35-foot trap was used except where 
otherwise indicated in the table; in 1904 a 45-fo()t trap. 

In 1903, in 17 sets of the trap at Ilirscli Rapids, station 2, between 
April 21 and August 12, on only three occasions w^ere sockeye fry 
taken, twice a smgle example and the otlier time iifteen. In six 
trials from April 21 to May 11 no sockeyes were taken; on May 17, 
23, 24, and June 2, a total of over 2,000 sockeye yearlings from 52 to 
97 mm. total length, together with over 2,500 humpback fry, w'ere 
taken. Thus it would seem if any great number of sockeye fry were 
migrating more would have been found in the net. 

In 1904, between May 17 and Jime 30, at the same point, over 
8,300 sockeye ^'"earlings were taken, as well as over 3,300 humpback 
fry and nearly 350 coho fry, but no sockeye fry. 

In 1903 a trap was placed in the Naha at station 1 as soon as the 
lagoon was sufficiently clear of ice to permit use of a boat, April 12 
to 19, thus probably securing the earliest movement of humpback 
fry. At this time all the lakes above were entirely covered with ice. 
April 19 a set at station 3, just below Jordan Lake, took only hump- 
back and dog-salmon fry. It can not be that the run of sockeye fry 
was over before the work was begun, smce great numbers were only 
recently hatched, nor is it likely that it occurs later in the summer, 
for no fry of any kind were taken in a trap set August 12, 1903, July 9, 
10, and September 2, 1904, nor in one set in the outlet of Yes Lake, 
July 18 to 21, and August 5 to 26, 1905. 

A remote opportunity for error lies in the fact that, Roosevelt 
Lagoon being salt water at the bottom, a deep-water fish, which the 
young sockeye undoubtedly is to an extent, might pass the rapids at 
high water and go under the trap. But this is extremely improbable, 
since in British Columbia waters, where the migration has been 
studied, the fry passed in the same manner and at the same season as 
the yearlings. It is further shown to be unlikely by the fact that a 
trap set below the mouth of Jordan Lake at station 3, May 15, 16, and 
17, 1903, took only 2 or 3 sockeye fry, while securing some 12,000 
humpback. At the same point June 2 and 3 only 14 sockeye fry were 
taken. At this date the humpback run was practically over. Nor 
did a trap set at the foot of Heckman Lake, station 4, May 12 to 14, 
show any considerable movement, 6 sockeye fry being taken, with 250 
yearlings. 

In 1903 the first movement of sockeyes at salt water was noted 
May 17. May 11 a trap set at station 2, in which over 1,000 hump- 
back fry were taken, failed to secure any sockeyes. The migration 
probably began on the high water of May 12 to 15; 300 yearlings were 
taken on the latter date below Jordan Lake. May 17, 220 were 
taken in a trap spanning about one-third of the channel at station 2; 
on the 23d over 800 were secured by a trap of half the size, spanning 
about one-fifth the channel; in this small trap 375 were taken on the 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 27 

24th and 650 on June 2. After this latter date the catch fell away; 
June 3, only 9 yearlmgs were taken below Jordan Lake, and at station 
2 on the 13th and 14th but 5 were obtained. 

These trials indicate that the migration in 1903 began about the 
middle of May and practically ended early in June, though stragglers 
continued to show into Jidy. The maximum occurred about May 23, 
after high water m the river and on high tides in the bay. 

In 1904 the run had begun before the work was commenced. The 
first trial was made at station 2, May 17, and though the trap was 
badly damaged, 10 yearlings were taken. On the 19th, with a trap 
covering about 60 per cent of the channel, 863 yearlings were secured. 
The run continued with variations till June 5, when a maximum catch 
of 1,157 was made. After this date the catch rapidly decreased, only 
83 being taken on the 10th, 50 on the 13th, 4 on the 30th, and none 
July 9 pjid 10. 

In comparmg the runs of these two seasons it must be noted that 
the conditions varied materially. In 1903 the heavy ice kept the 
river closed until an unusually late date. The lakes were not entirely 
clear from ice until about May 12, and the temperature of the river did 
not rise above 40° until after the middle of May. In 1904, at the 
time of arrival of the workmg party, May 16, the river had reached a 
temperature of about 44° and the ice had been gone for se.veral weeks. 
By the latter part of May the temperature had risen to 50°, and by 
June 2 to 52°. In 1903 this latter temperature was not reached till 
June 13, yet in 1904 the run continued over almost the same period 
as in 1903, reachmg its maximum perhaps somewhat later. This fact 
must be related to the much greater output of the hatchery for the 
latter year. In 1902 about 10,000,000 fry were liberated, under 
primitive conditions; the following year nearly 30,000,000 were 
planted under somewhat better conditions. The product of natural 
spawning is a negligible factor. 

YES BAY STREAM. 

Yes Bay is about 30 miles north of the Naha on Behm Canal. 
The river is somewhat larger than the Naha and about 1 mile in 
length below the lake. Yes Lake is nearly 4 miles in length and of 
average width less than one-half mile. The greatest depth is 230 
feet. Above this lake the river offers about three-fourths of a mile 
of excellent spawning ground, at the end of which the further ascent 
of fish is cut off by high falls. These falls were passable at one time, 
perhaps, as Dolly Varden trout have been taken above them. At a 
considerable elevation are other lakes of less extent that have not 
yet been explored. 

Yes Lake has no tributaries that are occupied by spawners except 
the main stream. The sockeyes use the upper river above the lake. 



28 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

This section is also frequented by cohos, steelheads, and an occasional 
king. Hum])backs spawn mainly in the lower river. Th^ Yes Bay 
hatchery is lo(;ated on the section of the river immediately above 
the lake. 

The trap maintained at the foot of Yes Lake July 18 to 21 and 
August 5 to 2C), 1905, made no catch of migrating fry or yearlings. 
It was evident that the migration was entirely over at that time. A 
trap of the same kind installed during the spring of 1907 at the same 
point made heavy catches of young, but at the time of ^vriting this 
report the material has not been specifically identified. Most of the 
data regarding the summer residence of young in the lake were 
drawn from observations in this locality. 

KARLUK RIVER. 
SUITABILITY AS A SPAWNING STREAM. 

The Karluk Hiver is a much larger stream than the Naha."- It is 
about 20 miles in length and several times the volume of the Naha. 
The lower course is one continual rapid, but presents no falls to 
obstruct the ascent of the fish. The upper course is of moderate 
current and affords excellent spawning ground, while in addition 
there are many sloughs to act as nursery ponds for the young. The 
lake is estimated to be 8 miles in length and 2 in width, depth unknown; 
two much smaller lakes are tributary to the main body. There are 
numerous small streams entering the main lake, some of which, as 
the outlets of the tributary lakes, are of considerable length and 
suitable for spawning ground, while others are swift mountain tor- 
rents with rough beds which offer but small areas for the fish. The 
shores of the lakes also are utilized for spawning. The river proper 
falls into a lagoon some 2 miles in length, into which the salt water 
flows from about half tide, so that it is largely brackish. The outlet 
of this lagoon to the sea is narrow and gives rise to strong currents 
in each direction somewhat as in the Naha. Near the head of the 
lagoon is located the Karluk hatchery. The Karluk River has been 
good for an annual output of about 2,000,000 sockeyes, besides small 
runs of king and coho and occasional large runs of humpbacks. 

MOVEMENTS OF YOUNG SALMON AS SHOWN BY TRIAL CATCHES. 

The least inconvenient means of access to Karluk Lake is by portage 
from Larsens Cove, Uyak Bay, to Nicolai's barabara, a trip of 5 
miles; thence by river, too shallow for a boat and too deep for good 
walking, 6 miles more to the lake. The labor required to bring to 
the lake the necessaries of life, and the consequent lack of scientific 

«A full description, by Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, may be found in Bulletin U. S. 
Fish Commission, vol. ix, 1889, p. 165 et seq. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 29 

outfit, will account for the meager results the observers obtained in 
certain lines. 

At this station the main attention was given to adult fishes. These 
were taken in a small pound or trap spanning about one-fourth the 
outlet on the shoal side and built for taking the incoming fish. A 
trap for young was operated a few times in connection with this 
pound and was also set a few times in tributary creeks. The party 
was equipped with a single net so constructed, and the debris from 
the lake soon accomplished its ruin. On account of this shortage 
of proper gear the movement of fry and yearlings from Karluk Lake 
was not followed with any definiteness. Five sets were made with 
a 25-foot net rigged as above described, with the following results: 

June 5, over night, sculpins, sticklebacks, 150 salmon parrs, a few 
salmon fry, a few trout fry. 

June 25, over night (between pound and shore), 738 sculpins, 530 
sticklebacks, 23 trout, 32 salmon parrs, 16 salmon fry. 

June 27, over night, sculpins, sticklebacks, 8 trout, 2 salmon parrs, 
2 salmon fry; 12 m. to 5 p. m., a few sculpins and sticklebacks. 

June 28, over night, sculpins, sticklebacks, 1 salmon parr, no fry. 

June 30, 12 m. to 4.30 p. m., 3 sculpins, 165 sticklebacks, 1 salmon 
parr. 

It will be noted that all these results show but a slight movement 
of sockeye fry from the lake. It may be they had reached the river 
prior to the first set of the net, though not all had passed down the 
stream. Throughout May and June the sloughs of the upper part of 
the Karluk River contained many sockeye fry or small lingerlings. 
In a haul May 22 nearly a thousand were taken, many with rem- 
nants of yolk. June 21 large schools of small fingerlings were numer- 
ous in the upper river, and some were taken with the dip net. June 
30 a few fingerlings averaging nearly 2 inches in length were taken 
in a pool of the river. Such fish seem to have disappeared soon after 
this date, since the observers made no further note of them. Fry 
and small fingerlings were abundant in the lagoon during June, July, 
and into August, but as these may have been the hatchery output, 
their presence indicates nothing regarding migration habits, except 
that they all apparently passed out into the sea during the summer. 

It would seem that the station party would have noted any large 
movement from the lake had it occurred, since their camp was estab- 
lished at its mouth early in May, before the ice had left it. But this 
is not necessarily true. At that season daylight lasts from about 3 
a. m. till 10 p. m. The young salmon travel little in daylight, and 
it might easily be that a considerable movement could have occurred 
without remark. It might be thought possible that the numerous 
fry in the river were the product of eggs spawned below the lake by 
fish arriving after low temperatures obtained. That this is highly 



30 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

improbable, however, appears from the fact that such eggs could not 
have hatched and the young developed by the time the^ fry were 
noted. Ripe fish would scarcely fail to enter the lake up to the time 
that ice formed upon it. It was shown that while ice is on the lake 
the temperature of the river is not much above 34° F. At this tem- 
perature the sockeye eggs would require about two years to develop 
into migrating fry. 

CONDITIONS REPORTED IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

The observations made in British Columbia, imder the dii*ection 
of J. P. Babcock, on the Fraser and Wannuck rivers (see Annual 
Reports of the Fisheries Commissioner for British Columbia, 1902- 
1904) should be noted here. In the spring of 1902, following the big 
run of 1901, fry were abundant in Lake Creek, the outlet of Seton 
Lake, and apparently migrated downstream at the same time with 
the yearlings. In 1903 swimming fry were seen in Lake Creek as 
early as January, remaining till April. They seemed to move down- 
stream in April and May, after which none was seen either in Lake 
Creek or in Seton Lake. The movement of the yearlings began on 
the spring floods early in April and continued to June, being the 
heaviest the first two weeks in May. Observations at Lytton, in the 
main river, found fry and yearlings, the latter least in number, 
traveling together between April 1 and July 13 in both the Fraser 
and Thompson rivers. In 1904 no fry or yearlings were found in 
the rivers. This was supposed to be due to the absence of spawners 
in the waters above in 1902 and 1903. It would seem, however, 
that if the movement of fry in 1903 was marked there should have 
been a corresponding number of yearlings to show in 1904. It is 
impossible to believe that the product of the 1902 eggs all left the 
waters as fry. Trials in the Wannuck River at Rivers Inlet, north of 
the Fraser, in 1904, discovered an abundant movement of both fry 
and yearlings between April 13 and July 1. The fry were in greater 
abundance than the yearlings and the height of the run was between 
May 22 and June 16. This greater abundance of fry as compared 
with the number of yearlings is thought by Mr. Babcock to be due 
merely to the operation of the trap. Both fry and yearlings drift 
downstream tail first. The tail coming in contact with the net, the 
fish would attempt to rush upstream and avoid the obstacle. If the 
net were set in water of moderate current the stronger yearlings 
would be able thus to avoid it and escape, whereas the weaker fry 
would be more likely to enter it. In swift currents both are forced 
into the trap. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. -31 

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS. 

From these various records it would seem that in the larger rivers, 
as the Karluk and Fraser, many sockeye fry leave their nursery 
waters as soon as they are able to swim and feed, or at the beginning 
of the fingerling stage; that in the smaller streams, as the Naha, this 
number is small and, in comparison to the number resident for one 
season, negligible; that in all cases a portion, perhaps the greater, 
remain in the lakes for one winter and migrate in the following spring 
as yearlings. Wliether any spend a second winter in the fresh water 
has not been demonstrated. Tliis residence of large numbers of 
young in fresh waters with a definite and apparently anticipated 
movement seaward the second spring of their existence is unique in 
this species. 'Wliile some king and coho young spend the sumiher in 
the vicinity of their birthplace there is no evidence that these summer 
residents do not pass to the sea as a rule during the fall, or for that 
matter at any convenient time. Their continued stay seems to 
depend largely on the period of rainless weather that obtains on the 
Pacific coast during the summer months. Only a small renmant of 
the lake-inhabiting fingerlings of these two species spend a winter in 
fresh water. Humpback and dog salmon all leave for the sea almost 
as soon as they are able to smm. This habit of the sockeye is doubt- 
less connected closely- with the habit of lake spawning, or is even the 
immediate effect of that cause. Further, it probably has given rise 
to the dwarf form, of wliich no analogue exists in the other speciec. 

YOUNG SALMON IN FRESH WATER. 

THE SOCKEYE. 
MOVEMENT OF FRY ABOVE THE LAKES. 

The sockeye fry when hatched or planted in the tributaries of a lake 
linger a little while on the nursery ground. Small plants made in 
pools near Loring in 1903 remained a considerable time after the 
absorption of the yolk sac, and the same fact was noted at the nursery 
pond at Fortmann Hatchery the following year. Similar observa- 
tions were made also at Karluk. The first creek entering at the foot 
of Karluk Lake is a small creek consisting of three pools connected by 
short rapids and fed entirely by springs. A few sockeyes frequent it 
for spawning, the greater percentage, apparently, being weak fish 
that are unable to continue the journey. It may be, too, that this 
creek remains open late in the fall and finds favor with late-coming 
fish. On Julj^ 14 a net was set across the mouth, taking in daylight 
4 adult salmon, 1 stickleback, and 1 sculpin. At night 6 adults and 
87 young sockeyes, 7 sticklebacks and 1 sculpin were taken. Of these 
young 11 were feeding and had reached an average length of 41 mm. 
10731—07 3 



32 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

Tlie}^ contained insects, larvae, and crustaceans. The remainder were 
recently out of the fry sta<z;e, and only a few had begun ta eat. Tliis 
indicates that some of the young remained some time longer in the 
pools than they would have done in a stream of different character. 
Their late development is doubtless due to the cold spring v.'ater. 
Nets set across one of the principal spawning creeks on July 16 and 
27 took ver}^ few fry. 

After some days, perhaps whengroAving necessity for food demands 
activity, sockeye young, as fry or small fingerlings, drop down the 
stream into the lake or maybe the sea. During the season of observa- 
tion on the Naha none was ever seen in the stream below the lakes, 
though cohos in abundance were resident there throughout the summer. 
Nor were any ever seen by the writer about the margins of any Alas- 
kan lakes except in the one instance mentioned below. Sockeyes 
apparently are never resident in the streams and never found in them 
except dinging the migratory movement. 

While adequate observations are lacking, it is probable that the 
fry travel in schools. In the Karluk they were observed by Rutter 
to school while in the sloughs, though the^^ have nowhere been seen 
to migrate in schools. In the lakes they remain during daylight in 
comparatively deep water. Rutter notes that they were at no 'time 
seen in abundance about the shores of Karluk Lake; Babcock states 
that they were not seen in Seton Lake after May. In the Naha lakes 
they were seen but once, June 11, a small school in Heckman Lake 
near the outlet, and a few in Jordan Lake in company with numerous 
cohos. They were taken in Alturas Lake outlet by Evermann on 
July 20 with fuigerlings of the same species. Later in the season 
young sockeyes were obtained in Alturas Lake only by sinking the 
seine to the bottom in water of considerable depth, 15 to 60 feet. In 
Yes Lake in 1905 they were taken by surface hauls of a 130-foot seine 
after dark in the latter part of August and September, and the same 
means were used successfully in the Naha lakes later in that season. 

FOOD AND FEEDING. 

In the lakes and in all waters where such food is available, young 
sockeyes subsist largely upon small Crustacea and associated forms, 
most of which have a diurnal movement to and from the surface, 
varying with the light. In the evening they rise to near the surface, 
and, with the coming of daylight, or shortly preceding day, retire to 
greater depths.'* In 1905 from August to Noveml)er a number of 
tows with fine nets in Yes Lake and the Naha lakes showed that 
crustaceans are ordinarily absent fTom the surface during daylight. 

o The diurnal movement of plankton Crustacea, by Chancey Juday. Transactions 
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, vol. xiv, 1904, p. 534-568. 



SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 33 

They could be taken in small numbers by sinking the net several 
fathoms. In Klawak Lake, however, on October 1 copepods seem 
to have been abundant near the surface at any time of day, but 
this was noted in comparatively shallow water, whereas the trials 
on the other lakes had been made in water of greater depth. As 
these forms have little horizontal movement it may be that their 
presence in Klawak Lake during the day was to be accounted for 
by the shallowness of the water. 

On the approach of darkness many of these crustaceans congregate 
near the surface, and with that coma the young sockeyes. Taken 
soon after dark, these young fish commonly had the stomach filled with 
Crustacea, with a number of insects, mostly flies and winged ants, in 
the esophagus. Over the entire surface of Yes Lake on a quiet even- 
ing of August or September the presence of young fish could be 
marked by the ripples. Sometimes the}^ would jump clear of tlie 
water, but more usually merely rise to the surface, apparently to snap 
up the floating insects which they then sought. The depth at which 
the fish remain during daylight is unknown, but is probably not great. 
As noted above, they were obtained in Alturas Lake in 15 to 60 feet. 
Whether any lived at the greater depth is unknown, since the seine 
had to be landed through lesser depths. It is unlikely they nuich 
exceed such depth, since in summer the lower parts of small lakes are 
imsuitable for the support of animal life.'^ 

Small fingerlings taken in Karluk River May 22 were feeding on 
Crustacea, insects, and insect larvje. June 21 their food was almost 
wholly insects and larva?; in the lagoon July 24 it was mainly insects, 
but with some Crustacea. Specimens of slightly advanced size 
(average 42 mm.) from Wood River, Western Alaska, submitted by 
tlie collector without notes," contain both Crustacea and insects. Some 
small fingerlings taken July 14 in the small creek tributary to Karluk 
Lake contained insects and in one instance Crustacea. 

In Yes Lake October 12 tows immediately ofi^ the mouth of the 
inflowing river in water of 47° F. took very few Crustacea. These 
were probably not from the river water, for it, being somewhat colder, 
would sink to the greater depths on entering the lake. October 17 a 
net set over night in the river just above the lake took very few Crus- 
tacea; river temperature 43° and lake 46° F. September 12 a net 
was set at the foot of the lake in the outflow for fifty minutes and do 
Crustacea taken; at the same time tows were made just above tliis 
set net and a few Crustacea taken, but much fewer than were usually 
taken in the main body of the lake. It would seem from these few 
trials that there is a scarcity of Crustacea in both sections of the river, 

a See E. A. Birge, Gases dissolved in the waters of Wisconsin lakes. Transactions 
American Fisheries Society, 1906, p. 143-163. 



34 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

but the matter needs further investigation. Even these slow-moving 
forms may be able to avoid the action of the current at-the foot of 
lakes and remain within the lake boundaries. 

FOOD SUPPLY IN RELATION TO THE HATCHING SEASON. 

The relation of food supply to the season of hatching has not yet 
been worked out. In the latitudes in which the sockeye is found 
it is improbable that any fry reach the feeding stage in advance of the 
opening of the streams from ice, unless when the spawn is deposited 
on the lake shores. In this latter event they would seek subsistence 
in the lake waters. It is shown above that these fingerlings feed to 
some extent upon surface forms when in streams or lakes at a season 
when such food is present. Their more natural food appears to be 
the subsurface plankton. The abundance of this material ma}' be 
an important factor in determining the time of departure from fresh 
water. 

This question has an important bearing in fish cultural work. The 
use of spring or heated water may shorten the incubation period to 
such an extent that fry reach the feeding stage in advance of the 
natural production of their food. To liberate them in that event 
must be disastrous; to retain and feed them artificially nullifies the 
economic advantage obtained in hastening the incubation. 

The temperature at which the most thrifty fry may be produced 
is another (juestion that should be taken up. There are some data 
to show that low temperatures increase the number of temperature 
units required to effect the hatching. In long periods of depressed 
temperatures errors in the thermometer or its reading mil be a 
greater factor than in short periods of observation. But if very cold 
water does retard the hatching, then such temperatures may or may 
not be advantageous. The success of certain methods in handling 
an insect-feeding species in waters that never freeze can be no crite- 
rion as to the best methods for a species of different habits living in 
different waters. 

GROWTH IN FRESH WATER. 

Fifty-nine J^oung sockeyes taken in Yes Lake August 24, 1905, 
varied from about 32 to 66 mm. total length, with an average of 
about 46 mm.; 66 seined on September 10 varied from 35 to 75, 
with an average, of 50 mm.; 59 taken September 26 and 27 varied 
between 34 and 82 mm., with an average of 45 mm. Assuming that 
these by the following spring would reach the same size as the Naha 
fish taken in 1903 when under the most nearly natural conditions, an 
average length of 65 mm., they would have to increase from 15 to 20 
mm. in length from September to May. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 35 

Since the deeper water of the lakes will not fall much below 39° F., 
the point of maximum density, and since with the approach of cold 
weather the diffusion of oxygen will become more general, there seems 
to be no reason, unless there is a cessation of activity due to the cold, 
why fingerlings should not feed more or less during the winter. 
Some species of crustaceans are known to reach their maximum 
numbers during the winter. This question has not been investigated 
for Alaskan lakes, nor are any data yet available upon which to base 
conclusions. Fry from the previous season's spawn in Yes Lake are 
ordinarily able to begin to feed about the middle of April, at which 
time they are somewhat over 30 mm. average length. By the latter 
part of August they have reached an average length of about 45 mm., 
a 50 per cent increase in a period of about four months. That this 
is crudely approximate is shown by averages in the three catches 
cited above. 

Should the figures for the Naha ^^earlings show the approximate 
size of the Yes Lake migrants, these have little greater growth to 
make between August and May than they make between April and 
September. This would require little increase in size during the 
winter, since the lakes seldom freeze over before January, and up to 
that time feeding on the lake plankton can be continuous. Dr. 
Evermann's data from Alturas Lake, as showing rapidity of growth, 
are rendered inaccurate by the necessity of comparing small finger- 
lings from shallow water with the larger fish from deeper water, but 
show clearly that the yearlings there attain a larger size than in the 
Alaskan lakes studied. His specimens of July averaged 48 mm.; 
those of September 9, 83 mm. 

It is interesting to note that while the young taken in Yes Lake 
in September did not fall below 45 mm., 46 specimens obtained in 
Heckman Lake October 2 averaged only 36 mm. and 28 taken on 
October 7 averaged but 40 mm. With this diminished size was noted 
a corresponding slimness and lean condition (fig., p. 18). It is also to 
be stated that the surface tows for food material in Heckman Lake, 
as compared with the material from Patching and Yes lakes, showed a 
diminution in number and general size of the crustacean life. These 
facts raise the question of the possibility of overstocking waters with 
fry. Of course, in case the surplus of young fish leave the parent 
waters as fry, as would seem to be indicated by the observations of 
the British Columbia parties, there could scarcely be any danger 
from tliis source. But the writer's observations in the Naha failed 
to reveal any such movement there and it is not unreasonable to 
suppose that some condition exists there which alters the habits of 
the fish in that respect. If that is true, and all the sockeye young 
spend one winter in the lake, then, with the increased millions which 
artificial hatching is able to turn out, a serious menace is offered to 



36 SALMON AND TROTtt TN ALASKA. 

the natural food supply of the waters, since no steps are taken, or 
perhaps can be taken, to increase that supply. It is notable that 
Patching Lake, where wholly natural conditions yet exist, showed a 
more favorable supply of plankton life than Heckman Lake. Li 
this connection it must also be noted that yearlings leaving the Naha 
in 1903 averaged about 65 mm. in length. In the following year 
there appeared a considerable reduction in the size, +,he average being 
imder 60 mm. This difference in the figures, however, might he due 
in slight part to the greater number measured in 1904. 

The size of the yearlings at the time of their movement varies 
more or less in different localities. In the Naha, in 1903, 943 speci- 
mens averaged 65 mm., with extremes of 48 and 100 mm.; in 1904, 
2,714 specimens averaged 59 mm., extremes 47 to 115. (See diagram 
A".) In the Eraser River, as reported by Babcock, the average is 
76 mm. Fifty-seven examples from the Wallowa River, Oregon, 
taken April 20, averaged 100 mm., with extremes of 99 and 132 nun. 
Besides these, in the same lot, were 6 females averaging 163 mm. 
(extremes 155 and 178 nun.), which were distinct in size and did not 
intergrade with the remainder. That they were not the dwarf form is 
shown by the large number of eggs in the ovaries, the large sockeye 
bearing always far more than the dwarf is known to contain. 

The presence of these large individuals raises the question of a 
possible second winter's residence in the fresh water. Young sockeyes 
were found in the Wannuck up to 150 mm. and in the Karluk up to 
221 mm., with the spring migrants. The Karluk fish intergrade 
with the smaller, indicating merel}^ unusual growth. The only disturb- 
ing factor in the Karluk data is the fact that some of the larger of 
these young fish, taken June 25 at the mouth of the lake going up 
stream, show such enlargement of the testes as to indicate approach- 
ing sexual maturity. The largest male and the two females taken in 
the same lot show no unusual precocity and the ovaries indicate the 
large form. The maturing males may be the dwarf form, but it is more 
probable that they are precocious individuals of the ordinary type. 

In the yearling sockeye the sexes run approximately equal. Of 
1,550 of the 1904 catch examined, 51 per cent were males and aver- 
aged 0.2 mm. greater than the females in length, the sexes standing, 
respectively, 59.7 to 59.5 mm. It appears that the greater size of 
the male becomes early characteristic. 

MIGRATION OF YEARLINGS. 

The migration of the yearlings seems to be wholly a matter of 
instinct. In 1903 the Naha reached a temperature of 40° F. about 
the middle of April. By the end of that month most of the ice was 
out of the lakes, but the temperature had not risen further. By 

«0n diagram read "yearlings" for '' fingerlings." 



i 1 1 Z I_I Z ^ 

' • I 

. „ ^ I 

—4 1 1- • J 

. 1 \-4-^ 

~~ ZZZZZZ]? — 'j_Z 

_. . k,_ . . ( 

_ S»«^_. _ ^_ 

— "•=; -* — 

!;-.^_ (^- 

!?»._ - — •-■ 



o 



^ 6 



o 






o o 



v^ 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



37 



the middle of May, when the temperature of the lagoon had reached 
45° F., though the upper river was still about 40°, the young fish 
began leaving in large numbers. The run, however, after lasting 
about two weeks, fell off abruptly, before any marked rise in tem- 
perature had occurred. In 1904 ice had left the lakes very much 
earlier, but the temperatures were not notably higher the middle of 
May than in the previous year; yet on May 17 the movement was 
at full height and continued so till the end of the first week in June, 
when the water had reached a surface temperature of over 50°. It 
then fell away little less abruptly than in the previous year. During 
this period the fish showed no corresponding increase in size as the 
season advanced, i. e., they maintained about the same average for 
the four weeks covering the main run, only the remnant stragglers 
late in June having increased in average length. 

In natural spawning the first deposited spawm must be in no small 
part destroyed by the activities of late-coming fish. Of the eggs 
deposited after low temperatures obtain, the product of the earlier 
will perhaps to a certain extent be evened with the later hatching 
in that it will not develop rajjidly during the winter, and with the 
rapidly warming water of s})ring the incubation value of each day 
augments to lessen the total number of days rec[uired in the develop- 
ment of the fry from the egg. Hence, while some fry may be ready 
to move with the opening of the river from ice, the maximum num- 
ber will accrue gradually and fall away abruptly even though the 
spawning be more or less evenly distributed over a greater period, 
as appears to be the case in species migrating as fry. When the 
young feed for a period or season before migrating this eff'ect will 
be obliterated by the superior ability of the larger of them to obtain 
food and hasten their growth. 

That the migration of yearlings takes place in such manner that 
the average size of the migrants is about the same throughout the 
season is shown in the following table: 

Lengths op Migrating Yearling Sockeyes at Station 2, Naha River, 1904. 



Date. 


Number 
of speci- 
mens. 


Average 
length. 


Extremes. 


Date. 


Number 
of speci- 
mens. 


Average 
length. 


Extremes. 


May 17-18 


22 
347 
422 
245 
244 
318 
190 
491 


mm. 
54.4 
58.8 
CO. 4 
60. 5 
58.3 
64.4 
55.3 
55.3 


mm. 
49-102 
47-106 
47-115 
47-93 
49-96 
48-85 
50-107 
47-78 


June 1 


147 
45 
81 
48 
48 


mm. 
57.4 
62.5 
59.7 
58.3 
59.5 
63.2 
72.7 


mm. 
48-75 


May 19 




57 105 


May 21 


June 8 


49-71 


May 23 


June 10 


51 67 


May 24 




51 68 


May 25-27 

May 28-29 

May 31 


June 18 

June 22-30 


39 

17 


53-84 
57-115 











During the month occupied in the migratory movement there 
should have occurred a growth of some 4 mm. in average length, 
but this in nowise appears, and it may be that* the late-hatched 



38 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

vigorous fish whose superior feeding and digestive powers must have 
advanced them beyond less thrifty earher-liatched are among the first 
to reach salt water. 

In the British Columbia work it was shown that the movement 
took place in the Thompson between the first of April and the middle 
of July, the run of fry being largest in April, with a temperature of 
41°, whereas in the Fraser, with an April average of 36°, both fry 
and yearlings ran about one month later. The May temperatures 
of the two streams are about equal — 46° for the Thompson and 45° 
for the Fraser. In June they reached, respectively, 53° and 51°. In 
the Wallowa River the movement apparently takes place in April; 
temperature unknown. 

It would seem ffoni these observations that migration begins when 
the water has reached a temperature of about 40°. At this time 
surface food, begins to be plentiful, hence the necessity of seeking 
new feeding grounds would appear to be less than it is earlier in the 
season. But l)efore any definite statement can be made regarding 
food influences it will be necessary to become familiar with the crus- 
tacean life of the lakes. In the fall, at least some of the principal 
crustacean forms are multiplj^ing, yielding an increased food supply 
which might account for the continuance of crustacean feeders in 
the lakes. Surface food at that season decreases, hence the tarriers 
in the streams, as coho and king, must move on as winter approaches. 
That scarcity of food has some influence might be supposed from the 
usual paucity of aliment in the stomachs of moving iish. Occasionally 
there will be found a stomach partially filled, but they seldom 
contain more than a small part of the quantity ordinarily found in 
examples taken from the resident individuals in any waters. It is 
probable that the fish take only what presents itself without any 
searching on their part. 

Floods seem to have little influence on the movement of yearlings 
beyond the possible temperature influence. Fry are apparently swept 
out by high water, movement near the mouth of the streams inclining 
to be heaviest on falling water. No catch of yearlings was made in 
daylight in the Naha where the water is clear, and though the catch 
was uninterrupted during the night it appeared to be heaviest in the 
evening, daybreak seeming again to accentuate the movement slightly. 
In the muddy waters of the Fraser the catch was continuous through 
the day. The apparatus used, however, would not be effective in clear 
water in daylight, and its results can not be taken as a sure indication 
of the time of movement. That there is little movement in day in 
clear water is highly probable, since none has been directly observed. 

The exact beha^nor of the large schools of yearlings has been fully 
described by Mr. Babcock in the report for British Columbia, 1003. 
Thev were observed to move down the lake in the afternoons, running 



SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 39 

headfirst from the quiet waters of the lake into the current of the 
outlet. Seton Lake is 17 miles in length and about 1 mile in width. 
In this body of water there can be no perceptible current setting 
down the lake, since the winds would produce more tide than gravity ; 
temperatures, while higher at the head than at the foot, will exhibit 
no sensible gradual increase after a short distance from the inflow of 
the cold streams. Yet these schools, apparently guided by instinct 
alone, approach the outlet directly. Were not the same plienomenon 
exhibited b}^ migrating fry, as humpback, for example, it might be 
supposed that the year's residence in the lake has familiarized them 
with its geography. 

Upon reaching a pronounced riffle they "turn en masse and head 
upstream, circling and moving more or less rapidly in the more quiet 
stretches before venturing to approach the dam," i. e., the main fall. 
Their timidity in approaching swift water was notable. Only with 
the waning light would the first few allow the current to carry them 
down, the movement, or rather passivity, gradually becoming more 
and more general. It will be remarked that in heavy runs the aver- 
age size is slightly smaller. This would seem to indicate that fishes 
not otherwise quite read}^ to migrate are drawn out by the general 
movement. The hesitancy to encounter swift water is noticeable in 
the adult as well. Spaulding at Karluk remarked it as a prominent 
feature of the movement of spawners in the small streams, and schools 
often are noted standing in a swift current, seeming to hesitate to 
ascend or descend as the case ma}^ be. It would appear that this 
trait may have had no small influence in producing a resident form, 
though there is no reason to believe that the dwarf sockeyes as now 
known (0. nerha liennerliji) are the product of the regular form, i.e., 
only tard}^ young that have failed to migrate with their fellows, and 
thereby remained to reach sexual maturit}^ in fresh waters. Their 
distinctive size, varying with waters inhabited, and the small number 
of eggs present in the ovary when yet little developed, mark them as 
at least a distinct race. 

It has been reported*^ that by the damming of streams for pro- 
ducing reservoirs to supply San Francisco and Oakland with water, 
the salmon then in those streams were landlocked. As a result they 
remained in the reservoirs and reproduced. Ultimately, by reason of 
the confinement and its effects, they became dwarfed, decreasing 
from their original weight of 12 to 14 pounds to less than 1 pound at 
maturity.'' The continual breeding of this species {0. tschawytscha) , 
in confinement in fresh water seems to produce dwarfing, even with 
abundance of food. At the Trocadero Aquarium, where they have 



« Report Commissioner of Fisheries, California, 187()-77, p. Sand (>. 
& See report by W. N. Lockington, in Report Commissioner of Fisheries, California, 
1878-79, p. 50. 



40 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

been bred in fresh water- foi- several generations, the 4-year fish weigh 
from 2 to 4^ pounds. Tliese are from the Sacramentcr'fish which 
average between 15 and 20 pounds. At the same time the number 
of eggs has diminished from a normal number of about 6,000 to 
only 1,300 to 1,400. 

These examples demonstrate a possible effect of fresh-water resi- 
dence. Dwarf sockeyes occur in such lakes as Alturas, Wallowa, 
Seton, Ozette, etc., in all of which fish may come and go at will. No 
other species of the genus breeds in lakes or exclusively in lake tribu- 
taries. It may be that the sockeye is in process of evolution from an 
anadromous form to a permanent fresh-water resident. Part of the 
young apparently possess the primal instinct to return to sea at once 
the first year, another and greater part have changed to become one- 
year residents, and the smallest part have lost the to-ocean instinct 
entirely and remain to reach maturity in the lakes. Experiments as 
to the action of artificially reared young of the two races would be of 
the utmost interest and no little value to fish-culturists. The exist- 
ence of marine and fresh-water forms of the same species is well known 
in Atlantic Salmonida?, and as well in other families. The effect of 
change of habitat in the two forms respectively has in no instance 
been worked out, and remains for solution, one of the most interesting 
and impoi'tant j^roblems in ichthyology and fish-cultiu'e. 

KING SALMON. 
AGE AND SEASON OF MKIRATION. 

The observations on the Sacramento liiver have demonstrated that 
Ihe king salmon young in that stream for the most part leave the 
fresh water as soon as they are able to swim and feed. All the 
spawning occurs in the upj^er j^arts of the river and its tributaries, 
yet fry with unabsorbed yolk were sometimes taken only a short dis- 
tance above tidal influence." This same action was noted in the 
Karluk. On July 3 a trap wliich had been set overnight at the 
mouth of that river just above the lagoon took 1,300 fry, nearly all of 
which were king ; there were only 4 humpback and 7 sockeye fry among 
the examples saved. As the collector did not differentiate species it 
is impossible to say whether 7 were all of the sockeye fry in the 1,300, 
or whether that number was only the natural proportion among the 
180-odd specimens saved. The humpback being of striking appear- 
ance, however, it is probable the 4 saved were the entire catch of that 
haul. It should be stated that the haul also contained 5 sockeye year- 
lings, 25 coho fingerlings, a few sticklebacks, flounders, and young trout. 
No other sets of this trap were made; hence it is impossible to state 

" Rtitter, Natural liistory of tlie quinnat salmon. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, 
vol. XXII, 1902, p. 92. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN 'ALASKA. 41 

what period the run of Idng fry occupied, but inasmuch as a few were 
taken in dayhght, and the total number taken was so Large, it would 
seem probable that the migration at that time was near its height. 
No fry of this species were taken in seine hauls made in the river 
May 22. 

On the lower Sacramento the principal migration of the king fiy 
occurs in March and April. Ice never forms on their breeding grounds, 
and they are free to travel as soon as they are able, which the tempera- 
ture of the water and consequent time of hatching make possible at 
the above date. The adults reach the river in April, May, and June, 
and in August and September. They spawn in numbers from the 
middle of August to the end of September, and from the beginning 
of October until in December. The first eggs deposited begin to 
hatch about September, and fry begin to migrate about October, 
or even earlier, and continue throughout the winter, since no 
obstacle is offered by ice, and the fall and winter rains put the stream 
into the most favorable condition. The run is practically over by 
April 1 on the lower river. From that date on it will be noted that 
the examples taken gradually increase in size, showing them to be in 
a manner summer residents." 

In the Karluk the adults first appear about the mouth of the river 
in May and continue in small numbers into August. They are known 
to spawn in the river below the lake latein August, or at approximately 
the same season as in California. The different time of migration of 
the fry is accounted for by the difference in average water temper- 
ature. In the Sacramento the eggs are deposited in water of a tem- 
perature of 56° to 46° F., the winter temperature rarely reaching as 
low as 40°. In the Karluk the lake surface in August varies between 
40° and 50°, or slightly above, and as the spawn of tliis species is 
deposited in the stream below the lake this may be taken to be the 
approximate temperature of the spawning beds. It is improbable 
that any great number enter the lake as adults to spawn in the lake 
tributaries. At an average temperature of 45° (it is probably less) 
during August and September eggs deposited in the latter part of 
August could not hatch before the middle of November. By tliis 
time it is probable that the temperature has dropped to freezing, and 
it is doubtful whether even the earliest eggs hatch before the advent 
of spring. The lake probably clears of ice and the water begins to 
warm up late in April or early in May. With the increased warmth, 
due to the long, periods of day in that latitude, the fry would have 
developed at about the date noted, namely, late in June and early 
in July. As there is little rain at that season, there would seem to 
be no cause for the downstream movement except age (development) 
and instinct. 

oRutter, op. cit., p. 93. 



42 SALMOISI. AND TROUT IK ALASKA, 

As in the Sacramento, it was found that a small number of .young 
king salmon remain in the river until they reach the size of finger- 
lings. Five yearlings averaging 111 mm. total length were taken in 
Karluk Lake June 5; 2 females slightly smaller, June 23 and 30; 2 
males, 115 mm., were taken in an upstream trap at the mouth of the 
river Ju\j 3, and 2 slightly smaller examples on the 5th. This would 
indicate that they were feeding in the river at this date. In a seine 
haul on the lagoon 4 males averaging 130 mm. and 4 females aver- 
aging 135 mm. were taken July 24, in company with large numbers 
of sockeye and king fry and a few coho and sockeye fingerlings (or 
yearlings) and small trout. It has not been noted that these feeding 
fingerlings migrate in schools, but Rutter has shown that in the Sac- 
ramento, with the growing scarcity of food in the fall and the oppor- 
tunity offered by fall freshets, they gradually forsake their summer 
quarters. 

The "summer residents" were also found in abundance in the 
Columbia River work of 1895. The altitude of these breeding waters 
and the proximit}^ of snow tends to reduce the temperatures below 
those of the Sacramento, altitude doubtless effecting for them what 
latitude does for the Karluk. The bottom temperatures given for 
Alturas Lake " can not be relied on, owing to the character of the 
instrument with which they were taken. It is probable that the 
bottom temperature at 150 feet is little over 40° F., as shown by 
later observations in Wallowa and other lakes. The falling air 
temperatures of the autumn must be closely followed by the water. 
The circulation in these lakes must be comparatively small and the 
cooling of the waters rapid. 

Dr. Evermann's researches show that the lake temperatures, and 
consequently those of the spawning waters, fall rapidly after August. 
Since the king salmon deposits its eggs late in August and early in 
September, it is likely that the early freezing of the water arrests the 
development of the fry, so that they can not arrive at the migrating 
stage until some time in the spring. But, in so far as the tempera- 
tures taken in Idaho are somewhat above the corresponding obser- 
vations in Karluk Lake, it is probable that the downstream migration 
of the main schools would have been completed before the arrival of 
the investigating party in July. The size and growth of the finger- 
lings found exhibit a condition exactly analogous to that described by 
Rutter for the Sacramento and observed in a less degree for the Karluk. 

EFFECT OF CHANGE FROM FRESH TO SALT WATER. 

Rutter demonstrated that the king salmon fry is unable to sustain 
immediate transfer from fresh water to sea water. In addition to 
his experiments on the California salmon, he made a test at Karluk. 

oEvermann, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xvi, 1896, p. 157. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 43 

August 2 about 600 fi\v and iingerlings were placed in a live-box 3 
by 3 by 7 feet and towed from the river through the lagoon to the sea, 
a trip of 5 hours. About 50 died en route, 150 died during the fol- 
lowing night, and all but 70 in the next 24 hours. These were proba- 
bly all king salmon. The totals show that all under 2 inches died; 
6 percent of the fiiigerlings up to 2h inches lived; 94 per cent of the 
larger fingerlings lived. This residt is singular enough when it is 
noted that the king salmon 3'^oung migrating out of the river are but 
If inches in average length. Tt is inconceivable that they remain 
in the fresh-water end of the lagoon until they have added 50 per 
cent to their size. Two-inch fish were taken by Eigenmann in 1890 
at Mare Island; 2^-inch examples were taken by the writer in 189S 
in San Pablo Bay in brackish water. There is every reason to believe 
that fingerlings of the latter length under natural conditions are 
perfectly able to endure a standard salinity. The fact that this 
species' breeds only in rivers of considerable volume insures to the 
young the opportunity of making the transition with the necessary 
gradualness. In this they differ from the frequenters of short 
streams, the fry of which species are doubtless able to endure a 
sudden entry into salt water.'' 

The tendency of the resident king fingerlings to advance upstream 
has been pointed out by Evermann in the report of the Columbia 
River inquiry. The same habit was noted by Rutter, and the pres- 
ence of king salmon in the catches at Karluk Lake verifies the earlier 
observations, showing that the location of the breeding ground is not 
closely indicated by the presence of the young. 

FOOD. 

The food of this species is almost wholly insects, in large part from 
the surface. The yearlings mentioned above, taken in Karluk Lake, 
contained only insects, as did also the young taken at the mouth of 
the river; but the 8 taken in the lagoon contained amphipods in addi- 
tion. These large fish must be yearlings. Their presence in the lake 
can be accounted for only on the assumption that the fry or finger- 
lings migrated into the lake the previous season, or that the yearlings 
ascend the stream in the spring and summer. Since their natural food 
would become scarce earlj^ in the fall it would seem to be improbable 
that they would remain in the fresh water, whereas the length of the 
river and the unnaturalness of an instinct that would impel female 
yearlings to ascend it from salt water lay that supposition open to 
serious question. They remain to be accounted aberrant individuals 

« Questions regarding the change from fresh to salt water, and vice versa, made by 
all the salmon, have been discussed in detail by Sumner (Bulletin U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries, vol. xxv, 1905. p. 53-108) and by Greene (Bulletin U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries, vol. xxiv, 1904, p. 429-456). 



44 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

that have obeyed neither the instinct to descend as fry nor that to 
seek the sea in self-preservation upon the approach of winter. 

Migrating fry at the river mouth were largely empty, but a few 
contained insect remains. The small fingerlings taken in a seine haul 
in the lagoon also showed a purely insect diet. The lot taken by the 
trap at the river's mouth averaged about 42 mm. (37-53) ; those 
seined in the lagoon averaged 47 mm. (40-62), showing a growth of 
about 5 mm. since reaching brackish water perhaps not over a month 
previously. It w^as noted that late in July the number of these small 
fish seen about the margins of Karluk Lagoon had greatly decreased, 
indicating that the stay of the main body in brackish water is short. 

COHO SALMON. 
EARLIEST MIGRATIONS. 

As in case of the king salmon, a considerable number of coho young 
remain as summer residents in the streams of their birth or in the 
connecting lakes; but the greater part seek the sea as soon as they 
become free-swimming. In the trap at station 2j on the Naha, the 
fingerlings and yearlings taken largely exceeded the fry in number. 
Both were taken from the middle of May until in June — the migration 
period coinciding with that of the sockeye. It is possible that this 
migration is in large part influenced by the sockeye movement. 
Wlien yearlings of the latter species travel at the surface the cohos of 
similar size maj^ be impelled, to some extent, to school with them; 
but the general absence of yearlings in the lakes early in the summer 
indicates that the spring migration is instinctive and general for the 
species. 

The fry reach the swimming stage somewhat later in the season than 
the sockeye. The eggs, though requiring a slightly shorter incubation 
period than those of the sockeye, are deposited much later in the fall. 
By means of a trap which was set in Steelhead Creek on Naha Bay in 
1904 the migration was found to be heavy as early as May 19, water 
at 48°. On this date over 1,100 fry were taken, the net spanning the 
entire stream. This run reached its maximum ten days later, when 
over 3,000 fry were taken in a single night. It continued, however, 
until sometime in Jul}^, when the temperature had reached 54°. In 
this creek the humpback and the dog fry left in Ma}', the coho from 
the middle of May through June, and the steelhead in July. These 
dates are approximate for these species in the Loring district. 

FOOD AND HABITS. 

The fry taken in the trap during the time from May to July 9 
showed no appreciable increase in size, the catch average varying 
irregularly between 37 and 40 mm. Of 600 measured, 85 per cent were 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 45 

between 3G and 40 — extremes 33 and 43 mm. A few fingerlings, less 
than 1 per cent, were taken at the same time. The food at that time, 
in the few that contained any, was insects. The main movement 
was early in the evening, the lifting of the trap at 1.30 a. m. and 
9.30 a. m. of the same day showing a catch of 2,015 between 
dusk (about 10 p. m.) and 1.30 a. m. and 50 during the morning 
twilight. 

In the Karluk in 1903 the first specimens of coho fry were obtained 
May 22. At that time salmon hj and small fingerlings were said to 
be numerous in the little sloughs at the edge of grassy marshes where 
the current was slight. Over 1 ,000 were taken in a single haul of the 
seine. Of the 42 examples preserved from this haul only 2 were 
cohos, about 38 mm. long, 1 with insect food. Of the 17 fingerlings 
saved from the same haul 15 were cohos, 12 males averaging 68 mm. 
ami 3 females averaging 52 mm., all feeding on insects and larvae. It 
should be noted that the small fingerling sockeyes taken in this haul 
contained crustaceans, some also insects and insect larvae, while the 
2 yearling sockeyes contained only insects and larvjB. Small 
fingerlings were taken in Karluk Lake July 27, 30, and 31, and 
as late as August 22. In all but 2 examples examined, which con- 
tained Crustacea, the food was insects and insect larvae. 

Coho young may be found in almost every brook of Alaska through- 
out the summer. They linger along the margins and in the pools, 
with no apparent seaward movement. As the adults penetrate 
all these small streams to spawn, the upstream movement of the 
young, if there be any, does not excite attention. They are resident 
in the lakes as well as in tlie tributary streams. With the fall rains 
these residents are swept out of the streams into the lakes or the sea 
in the same manner as the king. 

In the summer of 1905 many coho fingerlings were taken in Yes 
Lake. August 22, 15, averaging 95 mm. in length (63-122 mm.), 
were taken in a night haul. Two of these (13 per cent) contained 
sticklebacks, one having eaten 12, all less than 20 mm. in length; 
66 per cent were feeding on flies, etc.; 13 per cent contained beetles, 
and 26 per cent snails; 13 per cent had eaten caddis larva^, and a like 
number other larvae. August 24, 55 were taken in night hauls of a 
shore seine, average length 85.6 mm., extremes 53-130. Of these, 91 
per cent contained winged insects, as flies and ants; 42 per cent 
beetles; 14 per cent mites, eggs, etc.; 7 per cent sticklebacks; 7 per 
cent snails; and 5 per cent caddis larvae. September 10, 88 were 
secured in the same manner, average length 83 mm., extremes 
51-120. Of these, 44 per cent contained ^^dnged insects and the same 
number caddis larvae, 20 per cent beetles, 11 per cent mites, etc., 
about 2 per cent sticklebacks, 5 per cent snails, and 7 per cent 
other larvae than caddis. It will be noted that the average size of 



46 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

the latter lot is sliglitly smaller, but the decrease is not sufficient to 
indicate a movement of the larger individuals out of 4lie lake. A 
more significant fact is the growing scarcity of surface food and 
greater amount of bottom material — the caddis found in their 
stomachs. 

As early as April 6 (1903) coho yearlings of 145 to 165 mm. were 
gilled at the Fortmann Hatchery in Heckman Lake at the mouth of 
the river. They were attracted by the waste eggs thrown in the 
river. 

May 17, 1903, 11 males taken at station 2 averaged 119 mm., and 
8 females 112; May 24 of the following year 12 males averaged 125 
and 18 females 123. If these may be regarded as typical there 
appears to be a growth of about 50 per cent between September and 
May, or about twice that which from similar data was estimated for 
the sockeye. The yearling cohos taken in the Naha were found to 
eat the young salmon fry whenever taken with them in the nets. 
That they sometimes were able to pre}^ upon them in a natural state 
was evidenced by the presence of digested fry in some examples that 
were seined in Roosevelt Lagoon in May. 

September 12, 1897, the writer seined a number of 3^oung cohos at 
the mouth of Klawak River. No other fish except sticklebacks were 
noted. Of the 71 cohos saved the 37 males averaged 85 mm. in 
length (50-125); the 34 females averaged a small fraction of a milli- 
meter greater (47-135). At this time the hatcher}^ was operating 
and sockeyes were spawning in the lake tributaries above. Many of 
these young cohos contained salmon eggs. A more common food 
was a large maggot, probably the blowfl}^ larvae from dead fish 
along the stream. One stomach contained 2 leeches, and many of the 
smaller had insects. Examples taken with a hook in brackish water 
at the Klawak cannery wharf contained insects and a few beach 
crustaceans; 50 examples from the lake, October 14, 1905, averaged 
about 75 mm. These were taken with a dip net and do not give the 
average size of lake residents of that date. (See also record in salt 
water, p. 53.) Like the king fingerling the coho is readily taken 
with a hook, either with a fly or bait, salmon spawn being especially 
attractive in season. During the spawning season the coho in a few 
places may do some damage to the sockeye eggs. Large numbers 
are attracted to the scene of the hatchery work at Loring by the 
washings fyom the freshly spawned eggs. They were nowhere noted 
in any number on the natural beds. 

As the result of the wide diversity of spawning regions, the coho 
may be said to possess three movements seaward, first as fry, second as 
fall fingerlings in the same manner as the king, and third as yearlings, 
lake winter residents leaving in the spring with the sockeyes. This 



SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 47 

may be true also of the king salmon, but it is not believed, from the 
observations on the Columbia, that the king spawns above the lakes 
ordinarily, hence only the wandering young would winter in them. 

DOG SALMON. 

The dog-salmon young, so far as known, all leave the fresh water 
as soon as they are able to swim. The records of the occurrence of 
larger individuals in streams have not been authenticated. The 
dog-salmon fingerlings. reported in the rivers of Washington by Gil- 
bert and Evermann" on later examination were found to be cohos. 
A similar find by Davis'' likewise proved erroneous. 

This species breeds in the Naha in too limited numbers to permit 
observations of value. Fry were taken in only two instances at sta- 
tion 2. A few were taken at station 1 the middle of April, and again 
in Gibson and Emma creeks the middle of May. They were found 
in abundance, however, running out of the creeks of Deep (Moser) 
Bay, April 30, temperature 37°,- many of them still with remnants of 
yolk. A few were found in Steelhead Creek after May 7 and up to 
June 6. In the main their fresh-water habit seems identical with 
that of the humpback. 

Early in June, 1903, immense schools of small Imgerling dog salmon 
were seen leaving the Karta River. Examples taken on the 8th of 
that month about the margins of the upper Kasaan Ba}^ average 
about 40 mm. They were feeding on insects. It was reported by 
the workmen building the Alaska Packers' Association trap at that 
point that shoals of these young could be seen at times well out in the 
bay, where they were pursued by larger fish, apparently Dolly Varden 
trout. The great number of adult dog salmon spawning in the Karta 
River makes this easily credible. 

In the Karluk lagoon, 1903, fry and small fingerlings were ob- 
served in large numbers May 12-14. They lay close inshore by the 
spit, moving about in schools, but not going out v/ith the tide. Some 
of these still contained yolk, others were feeding on insect larvae, 
amphipods, and surface material. Slightly larger young were taken 
in the lagoon June 9-12, feeding on crustaceans and insects. June 18 
they were noted as abundant outside on Karluk Beach, 6 taken 
averaging 50 mm. in length ; they were feeding on insects, crustaceans, 
and small cottoids. July 24 neither dog nor humpback young were 
present among the examples taken in a seine haul in the lagoon, all 
apparently having sought the sea. (See p. 52.) 

"Gilbert and Evermann, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xiv, 1894, p. 198. 
b Davis, Pacific Fisherman, vol. i, no. 4, May, 1902, p. 9. 
10731—07 1 



48 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

HUMPBACK SALMON. 

The fry of the humpback salmon leave the fresh water with the 
breaking up of ice. In 1903 they were first taken April 12 at station 1 
on the Naha, but the number secured, 240, indicates that this was not 
the beginning of the run, though all the lakes were still covered with 
ice. The number migrating increased from this date to the end of 
the month, and they were found leaving the lagoon throughout 
May. During this time there was no increase in average size, the 
fry apparently leaving as rapidly as they attained sufficient strength. 
They traveled almost wholly b}" night, the heaviest movement 
apparently being on the first of falhng water after a rise. At these 
times the average size was slightly less than at others. On April 19 
a trap set near station 3 took over 1 ,500 fry. There is but a very small 
spawn ng ground below Jordan Lake above the point where this net 
was set, and it is thought that the larger part of the run indicated 
by this catch had passed through Jordan Lake under the ice. The 
average size was a trifle greater than that of the fry taken at the same 
time at station 1, wholly because of fewer undersized-fish. 

Very few "humpback fry were seen at Karluk, a few were taken at 
the mouth of the river May 11, and again July 3, but at no time did 
they appear abundant. One example occurred in an experiment 
testing for endurance of salt water and was found to survive the test. 

While the young humpbacks are in fresh water, feeding is only 
incidental. A few have been found to contain remains of insects, 
larvae, and crustacea. As with the dog salmon and coho, the descent 
from the small creeks in which many are hatched makes it necessary 
that they be able to stand a quick change to salt water. In carrying 
a number from the trap in fresh water to the lower Naha Bay it could 
not be observed that immediate immersion in salt water caused them 
the least inconvenience. 

TROUT (STEELHEAD?) AND CHARR. 

The first trout fry appear in Steelhead Creek about July 1. On 
that date in 1903, 255 were taken in the trap, and on the following 
day 295. About the same number were present again in 1904, 283 
being taken on July 9. While no further trials of the trap were made 
in 1903 the fry were noted to continue in the creek in large numbers 
until swept out by the fall rains about the middle of September. 
During this period their abundance was almost incredible when 
viewed with regard to the number of adults seen in the spawning 
season. 

In the lower Karta River July 26, 1903, trout fry were very numer- 
ous. At this time the temperature was 64° and the stream very low. 
Along the sandy bars in places the receding of the water had left 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 49 

pools in wh cli large numbers of fry were imprisoned. The tempera- 
ture in these pools was much higher than in the stream, and in many 
cases the'water had evaporated, leaving the fry to die. All of them 
were swept out by the first rise. 

At Karluk, August 29, 1903, in a small stream tributary to the 
small lake east of the main lake, Spaulding noted the occurrence of 
fry imprisoned in the same manner. From the date and place it is 
believed that these were trout fry. No examples were preserved. 
Small fingerlings and fry of trout may be seen during the late summer 
almost as widely distributed as the coho. 

So far as observed the food of the trout fmgerling is insects. The 
observations were made on July 11 in a pool about 6 to 18 inches deep 
at the foot of the fall in Flume Creek, where numbers of both trout 
and coho young fmgerlings were resident for several weeks. The coho 
were schooling near the surface; the trout inclined rather to scatter and 
occupy the bottom. One trout was observed to take a position on a 
rock, from which it would dart for food to either side and forward for 
some 20 inches, returning each time to the same resting place. During 
the eight or ten minutes it was observed, it made over twenty trips, 
once attacking and driving away a brother fingerling that tried to 
take a place upstream a.nd cut off the food supply. The trout rarely 
came to the surface, striking mostly at submerged drifting particles. 
Upon return to the pool two hours later the fingerling was found to 
be gone. 

The fry of the charr occur in very much smaller number. A slight 
migrqijtory movement was noted in Steelhead Creek in 1904. Two 
were taken in the trap May 29, 16 on June 5, and on the 13th 30, the 
last observed. Their habit is to burrow in the gravel in the small 
streams. In these places their protective coloration and agility 
permit them readily to elude observation. No notes were made on 
the food of these young. 

Fingerlings of all sizes of trout and charr were taken in the trap 
at various times, but no indication of any migratory movement 
appeared. Both species pass indift'erently to and from salt water. 
The seaward movement of the fry is unciuestionable, but individuals 
that remain in the streams after the fry period are doubtless governed 
only by convenience in obtaining protection and food. In the pools 
called Trout Ponds on Trail Creek only cutthroats and charrs were 
taken with a hook. These never exceeded a certain size, about 8 
inches, though both male and female ripe cutthroats were taken May 
30. In the brook below larger individuals were taken, a ripe female 
cutthroat being secured April 25. No steelheads were noted in Trail 
Creek, but a few trout fry may be found there. In Steelhead Creek 
only rainbow and Dolly Varden trout are taken below the falls, but 



50 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

in the lake above the falls cutthroats are abundant. These falls are 
probably now impassable at all stages of water, and it isiiardly to be 
believed that fry of the trout in the lakes help to account for the 
abundance of trout fry in the stream. It is to be observed that their 
numbers decrease toward the upper reaches, so that for some distance 
below the falls few are seen, and none in the few yards of the stream 
between the lake and the head of the falls. 

SEA HABITS OF YOUNG SALMON. 

NOTES AFFORDED BY COLLECTIONS AND RECORDS. 
THE SOCKEYE. 

The sea habitat of the young sockeye so far has not been studied. 
The only observations available are the residts of occasional and 
irregular seine hauls made by the Albatross parties at various times, 
accompanied usually by no notes regarding exact locality or asso- 
ciated forms. These scant collections throw little light upon the sea 
habits or habitat. The gear used was capable only of taking exam- 
ples in comparatively shallow water, close inshore, on smooth 
beaches. Larger examples would scarcely be taken under these con- 
ditions even if present in the same waters, and smaller fry would not 
be held by the web ordinarily used in the vessel's seines. 

The smallest specimens in the collection are 8 examples aver- 
aging 41 mm., from Svimner Harbor, taken July 2, 1896. This harbor 
is a small bay northeast of the town of Unalaska. It receives a small 
creek, the outlet of a lake. The fry were taken in company with 
coho fry and fingerlings. The sockeyes were feeding on Crustacea, 
the cohos on both Crustacea and insects. If they were taken in the 
bay, they were doubtless recent migrants from the lake. These sock- 
eyes differ somewhat from the more southerly specimens in having 
shorter and less numerous gillrakers — about 10-17; in coloration 
they resemble some of the examples from Karluk, the parr marks 
being longer and more bar-like than in those from Southeast Alaska. 

A number of fmgerlings from Wood River, Bristol Bay, taken July 
23, 1903, averaged about 41 mm. in length. The stomachs were 
filled with small crustaceans and insects. Wood River has little fall 
from the lake which it drains, and in spring tides is affected as far as 
the lake. No notes accompany the specimens, so they are of little 
biological significance. They seem to differ from the Southeast 
Alaska examples of similar size in being of less tapering outline and 
having a smaller eye. Six yearlings, average 98 mm., are in the same 
lot, with the same food present in the stomachs. The main run from 
the Kvichak River was reported to Mr. John N. Cobb, of the Bureau of 
Fisheries, as occurring from the first to the middle of June, fish from 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 51 

3J to 4 inches in length. These are taken for eating by the Chinese at 
the cannery. Some are said to be pink-meated. 

The next smallest examples in the salt-water collections are 12 
from Alert Bay, British Columbia, taken June 5, 1895, probably from 
the beach near the cannery. With these are a number of small dog 
fingerlings of about 40 mm. and possibly a few humpback. Many of 
the specimens are in poor condition and not positively identifiable. 
The sockeyes average 62 mm. (53-68). Their food is all pelagic 
material, small adult copepods, ostracods and amphipods, crab 
larvae, and a worm-like marine form — Sagitta. The other species 
were also feeding on Crustacea. 

From Nikolski, Bering Island (Komandorskis), there are 5 year- 
lings taken July 3, 1895; 2 males, 121 and 130 mm., 3 females, 133 to 
135 mm. ; all with amphipods in the stomachs. 

From Kiska Island, June 7, 1894, 1 male, 196 mm., containing 
copepods, and 2 females, 230 and 245 mm., with stomachs empty. 
These are said to have been taken in a small lake, but data for this 
are incomplete. They are apparently not dwarfs. 

From Isanotski Straits, at the extremity of the Peninsula of 
Alaska, 5 examples were obtained July 15, 1894; 3 males, 123 to 135 
mm., and 2 females, 132 and 143 mm. The only stomach left in the 
specimens by the collector contained small crustacea, schizopods, and 
amphipods. These fishes were all infested with a parasitic round- 
worm occurring in masses in the region of tlie air-bladder. They 
are also noteworthy for the shortness of tlie gillrakers. These (on 
the right side) average less than 33 in number, the longest equal to 
about the distance between 6, or spanning 5 interspaces. The speci- 
mens from Nikolski average 34, with a length equal to about 5J 
interspaces. Those from Kiska run high, averaging 36 in the 3 
examples- at hand. Dundas Bay specimens, in a count of 12 some- 
what smaller indiAaduals, give an average number of 33 + with aver- 
age length a little less than 5 interspaces, whereas Karluk fish, in 10 
examples taken June 8, 1903, show an average number of 35+ and a 
length equal to nearly 9^ interspaces. 

The examples from Dundas Bay were taken July 24, 1903, in a 
seine haul on the tide flats with mud and sand bottom. With them 
occurred dog and humpback fingerlings of about the same size, per- 
haps in the same school. The individuals saved are 6 males, average 
80.6 mm. (71-91), and 6 females, average 77.7 (73-85). They were 
feeding on crustaceans, insects, and insect larva;. 

At Uganuk young salmon are taken in large numbers in seine hauls 
for sand launces. Of 25 pounds of these small fishes taken in this 
manner June 15, 1903, 36 per cent were young salmon, mainly sock- 
eyes, but in addition some cohos; 4 per cent were young herrings; 
the remaining 60 per cent were sand launces, or, as they are known 



52 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

locally, candlefish (Amrnodytes). The sockeyes of this lot whose 
stomachs were examined contained crustaceans, a few with fragments 
of insects also; several had small herring fry. Seventy-two males 
averaged 82.1 mm. in length (47-105); 70 females averaged 81.3 nnn. 
(48-110). 

It is a curious fact that in these collections, where there are large 
numbers of apparently regular-sized examples, usually the males are 
found to average slightly the larger, whereas in cases of only a few 
large examples the females almost always exceed the males in size. 

At Karluk young salmon are found abundantly in the waters in 
which seining for the cannery is carried on. It is said these yearlings 
sometimes rush through the seines in clouds, and even in the large- 
meshed seines numbers are drawn ashore with the adults. From the 
catch on June 8, 1903, were saved 67 sockeyes, averaging 181 mm. 
(123-207). These were feeding on small Crustacea; of 20 examined 
none had fry of any sort in the stomach. The distribution of food 
was peculiar in that individuals were feeding almost exclusively on a 
giv«n form. For example, one was filled with ostracods, others had 
but few; some had almost nothing but copepods, others as exclusively 
amphipods; many, however, had such a mixture as would be expected. 
This seems to indicate that the crustaceans form schools to a certain 
extent, either in zones or otherwise, which enables the fish, acting as 
a tow-net, to obtain more or less nearly pure masses of a given form. 
Among the specimens saved from this haul other than sockeyes were 
only 2 cohos. One of these had eaten a young cottoid of 18 mm. 
length. 

On July 3 from a similar haul were saved 30 specimens; 12 males 
averaging 136 mm. (122-156), and 18 females averaging 139 mm. 
(125-164). Some of these were empty, most had been feeding on 
small crustaceans, several contained in addition small coiled sliells 
(pteropods), and 2 had small blennies and sticklebacks in some 
number. One coho occurred in this lot. 

July 24 young salmon were very abundant in Karluk Lagoon. A 
seine haul, with a 75-foot seine, covering about 250 square yards, 
took over 2,000 salmon, 30 to 150 mm. in length, and a few small 
trout and charrs. It is noteworthy that in this lot there seem to have 
been no humpbacks or dogs, whereas among specimens taken at the 
same time on the outer side of the spit, in the caniiery seine, no sock- 
eyes were saved. Wliether this was a peculiarity of the distribution 
at that time or whether it arose from some other reason it is impos- 
sible to state. It is known that the collector did not closely differ- 
entiate the various species. The young sockeyes taken in the lagoon 
varied from 30 to 145 mm. in length. The smaller are doubtless, 
from the hatchery, the yearlings may be from the lake; all were 
feeding on Crustacea and insects, tlie smaller fish more on insects 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 58 

and their larvae, the larger on Crustacea, mainly an amphipod. In 
several of each size were masses of intestinal worms. 

It is stated that small salmon are seen in the seines throughout 
the canning season, but mainly in the earlier part. It will be noted 
that the larger specimens were obtained in June, and that after July 3 
no collection of sockeyes was made from the cannery seines. It may 
be that the continual hauling in time frightens thein away; but it 
seems more reasonable to believe that with increasing age they move 
farther out from shore. The vast numbers observed in June must 
be the yearling migrants from the lake. As to what becomes of 
the fry of the same season after reaching salt water, there is no clue, 
and can be none until search is made for them with small-meshed 
nets. 

The only other specimens in the collection of interest in this con- 
nection are 2 males of 91 mm. and 5 females 84 to 104 mm., average 
92.4 mm., taken in Karta Bay June 26, 1897. These contained mainly 
insects; some had also Crustacea, and one had a few young flatfish, 

THE KING SALMON. 

It is a significant fact that in the collections at hand there occurs 
but one young king salmon taken in salt water. It would seem 
there should have been some in the Karluk Beach collections if the 
species is accustomed to tarry near its parent stream. They are 
sometimes taken in San Francisco Bay and the region outside the 
straits, but none of these examples have become part of the Bureau's 
collection. They have been reported also from the region of Kil- 
lisnoo, Alaska. The example mentioned is a 215 mm. male, which 
was taken with the cohos (see below) at the Loring cannery wharf 
August 2, 1904. As this was preserved for a coho, it is possible 
that others of the 45 mentioned below were of this species. 

THE COHO. 

The young coho in salt water is more easily observed than the 
other species. It readily takes the hook, and apparently is less 
timid than the others in approaching surface and shore. In 1904 
45 were taken at the Loring cannery wharf August 2. They aver- 
aged 190 mm. (158-226). On July 10 at the same place about 30 
were taken. No measurements were made except of the largest, 
which was 138 mm. On August 2, 1905, a scattered school came 
about the Albatross vvhile anchored at the extreme head of Yes Bay; 
26, averaging 202 mm. (152-237), were taken with a hook over the 
ship's side. Only a few, 6 or 8, would appear at once, and they 
took the hook baited Avith bits of meat, etc., very shyly in the per- 
fectly clear water. Most of the stomachs contained offal from the 
ship's messes; 5 contained fishes up to 65 mm. in length, all that 



54 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

could be identified being sand launces; 2 contained young sticklebacks, 
one of them 10 individuals; 2 had isopods, and only i> had taken 
insects from the surface. Another example taken later, a male of 
265 mm., contained 4 small herring. 

At Karluk young cohos are occasionally taken in the cannery 
seines; two, 180 mm. long, preserved from the catch of June 8, con- 
tained 2 species of amphipods and one a young cottoid; one, 158 mm., 
preserved from the seine July 3, was an empty female; July 24, another, 
175 mm. long, contained Ammodytes. As will be seen, these records 
indicate the presence of very few young cohos about Karluk Beach. 

The genera! collections of the Albatross afford the following data: 

A number of cohos were taken at Karta Bay with larger sockeyes 
and smaller dog salmon on June 26, 1897. Of the specimens preserved 
8 males average about 80 mm. (56-100), and 14 females average 
nearly 100 mm. (80-140). They were feeding mainly on insects and 
Crustacea. 

At Thorne Bay, July 5, of a number of small cohos together with 
a few dog salmon, seined probably at the mouth of the river, 24 
males averaged about 55 mm. and 50 females about 56 mm., the 
high average of the latter being due to the presence of a few slightly 
larger individuals (extremes, males 45-65 mm., females 45-78 mm.). 
The stomachs examined contained insects for the most part; a few 
had small crustaceans and 2 had flatfishes. 

At Port Alexander, July 3, 1903, many young cohos were taken 
in the seine; 4 males and 2 females were preserved; average about 
150 mm. They were feeding on young herring and sand launces, 
also larval crabs and amphipods. 

Of the specimens saved from Uganuk, June 15, 1903, 5 are males, 
averaging 138 mm., and 8 females, 130 mm. All but 3, which were 
empty, were feeding on young herring, each containing from 1 to 5 
individuals. (See p. 51-52.) 

At Unalaska 6 examples, taken July 23, 1888, average 148 mm., 
contained insects, crustaceans, grubs, and in one case a small fish 
like a salmon fry. One humpback fingerling was in this lot. 

Twelve examples, taken at Sumner Harbor July 2, 1896, averaged 
about 60 mm. and were feeding on insects and Crustacea. They 
were in company with the smaller sockeyes. (See p. 50.) 

Isolated examples in the collection, not worthy of fuller notice, are: 
1, Kilisut Harbor, July 1, 1903; 5, Tribune Bay, May 17, 1894; 3, 
Union Bay, British Columbia, June 22, 1903; 3, Cleveland Passage, 
July 13, 1903; 1, Pavlof Harbor, July 25, 1903; 1, Humboldt Harbor, 
Shumagin Islands, July 31, 1888; 3, New Morzhovoi, July 17, 1894, 
and 2, Kiska Island, June 7, 1894. 

From the above data it is seen that the cohos remain for some 
months about the shores near the streams whence they issue. They 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 55 

may be found about the mouths of the streams in brackish water 
perhaps soon after their descent of the stream. It may be they 
remain about the streams for a time to accustom themselves to the 
salt water, but this is not evident in case of the fry. The sea-run 
exanxples are readily distinguished by the silvery appearance and 
usually by the greater depth of body which follows habitual disten- 
sion of the stomach. In some cases, v/hile near in shore, insects 
appear to continue a staple article of diet, as in the fresh water. 
The cohos feed less on Crustacea than the sockeyes, perhaps inhabit- 
ing slighter depths; correlated to this is the abundance of small fishes 
found in their stomachs — sticklebacks in brackish water and herring 
and sand launces in more open regions. 

From the catches at Naha and Yes bays it would seem that the 
cohos continue to school after reaching salt water. The results of 
the seine hauls indicate that the difl'erent species of salmon school 
together, or at least in the same waters. 

DOG AND HUMPBACK SALMON. 

On May 29, 1903, a small school of salmon, about 50 individuals, 
was seen along the shore about 1 mile below Naha Bay. Seven of 
these were secured — 5 humpbacks 42 mm., and 2 dog slightly larger. 
The former were feeding on small Crustacea and pteropods, the lat- 
ter on Crustacea and insect larvae. 

On July 1 and 2 a few dog salmon fingerlings were taken in the net 
at station 2. These may have been either fishes that had remained 
in Roosevelt Lagoon since early spring, or stragglers from the bay 
coming in on high tide. Ten were males, averaging 56 mm., and 4 
females, averaging 62. Those with food had been taking insects. 
(See also p. 47.) 

At Karluk June 18 the fry of both dog and humpback salmon were 
abundant along the beach. Six preserved examples of the dog aver- 
age about 50 mm., and contained insects, crustaceans, and small cot- 
toid fry. Thirteen humpbacks saved average about 47 mm. ; of the 
6 larger ones examined 4 contained crustaceans, the other 2 nothing. 

July 24 there were saved from the cannery seines 5 dog-salmon 
young, averaging 83 mm. (70-100), which contained a few insects 
and small fishes (blennies), but mainly crustaceans. Also 47 hump- 
back young, averaging 77 mm. (60-95), the main food in which 
was copepods, but in addition were found flies, insect larvae, amphi- 
pods, and in a few cases small fry, probably Lumyenus, up to 18 mm. 
in length; 1 stomach contained 22 of these. Only the following 
collections were made by the Albatross: 

In Alert Bay, British Columbia, June 5, 1895, about 50 dog salmon 
small fingerlings were taken, along with a number of small sockeyes; 
these averaged about 40 mm. and contained only small Crustacea. 



56 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA, 

In Admiralty Inlet, Wliidb}" Island, on June 30, 1903, many young 
dog salmon were taken in a shore seine on gravel bottom. Of these 
13 of each sex were preserved, the males averaging 99 mm. (83-117), 
females, 98 mm. (78-122). In none of the 9 examined were any fry 
found. They were feeding wholly on plankton material, Crustacea, 
principally amphipods, and Sagitta. They appear to have been 
schooling alone. 

In Otter Bay, Pender Island, British Columbia, 1 1 dog salmon 
were preserved from the collection of JMay 31, 1895. These averaged 
a little over 70 mm. and contained Crustacea. 

June 29, 1897, 4 dog salmon, 2 of each sex, averaging about 56 mm., 
were taken at Loring, it is believed in a seine haul on the seining 
beach of Roosevelt Lagoon. They contained only insects. These 
specimens, considered in connection with those obtained at station 2, 
noted above, point toward a continuance of some of the young of 
the dog salmon in brackish water for a period and suggest the desira- 
bility of investigating such waters with suitable gear. A haul was 
made in Roosevelt Lagoon on the night of October 1, l!)()r), but no 
salmon were obtained. 

At Thorne Bay, July 5, 1897, many dog-salmon young were taken 
in seine hauls on the beach just below the river; 64 of the specimens 
are males, averaging about 65 mm. (42-82), and 84 are females about 
2 mm. longer (44-83). The food in those examined was Crustacea, 
mainly ostracods. A few smaller ones taken in the river mouth were 
feeding on insects. In Karta Bay, June 26, 1897, dog, coho, and 
sockeye young were taken in the same hauls. Of the first, 19 males, 
about 60 mm. average, and 10 females, about 53 mm., were preserved. 
They were feeding mainly on insects and amphipods; a few contained 
small flatfish, 1 being filled with them. 

In Dundas Bay, July 24, 1903, many young salmon — sockeye, 
dog, and humpback — were seined on the tide flats. The specimens 
of dog salmon are 4 males, about 75 mm., and 5 females, 82 mm. long. 
They were feeding on Crustacea; a few had eaten insects and larvae 
in addition. The 3 humpback, 2 males and 1 female, average about 
80 mm.; food the same as the other species. The 3 species were 
apparently schooling and feeding together. 

In Pavlof Harbor, July 25, 1903, the seine was hauled at the mouth 
of a small stream in deep water, gravel beach. Many young dog 
salmon, a few cohos, sand launces, and other small fish were taken. 
The specimens of the first preserved are 4 males, about 100 nnn. long, 
and 7 females, slightly smaller. Their food was Crustacea, except, in 
one instance, a few flies. 

At New Morzhovoi, July 17, 1894, 34 dog salmon young were pre- 
served. These average about 80 mm. in length. The stomachs con- 
tain Crustacea and gastropods; only 1 had insects. These specimens 
show the peculiar segregation of food noted in some sockej^es at 



SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 57 

Karluk (p. 52) ; some had eaten almost exclusively large copepods, 
others ostracods, and yet others a peculiar Caprella-like form. 

Four specimens from Isanotski Straits, July 1.5, 1894, show no pecul- 
iar features. 

At Sucia Island, May 6, 1894, 3 humpbacks and 1 dog salmon were 
taken, the former 47 mm. and the latter 54; food, Crustacea. 

At Metlakatla, July 10, 1903, 2 humpbacks were taken, 64 mm. 
in length. One was empty, the other contained flies. 

Single specimens of humpback fingerling are recorded from Kodiak, 
August 14, 1888, and Unalaska, July 23 of the same year. The first, 
a female 113 mm. long, contained sinall fry and a few flies; the last, 
a male slightly larger, crustaceans. 

CONCLUSIONS FROM AVAILABLE DATA. 

From the above notes it may l)e concluded that many young sock- 
eye*, after reaching saltwater as yearlings early in the spring, remain, 
in company with other young salmon, for a few months about the 
shores near the mouths of the streams from which they are derived ; 
that during this time they feed principally upon the small crusta- 
ceans which are found from the surface to an unknown depth and, 
like the crustacean forms found in the lakes, have a diurnal move- 
ment from and to the surface. In tows made by the Albatross in 
the open ocean it has been found that many of these forms tend to be 
most abundant at the surface about dark, again decreasing in number 
within an hour or so. Whether the period repeats again at daylight 
was not tested. Surface tows in daylight made in Yes Bay and Behni 
Canal during July, August, and September, 1905, showed an almost 
entire absence of food material. At the same time it was found at 
depths of 20 to 75 fathoms and greater, the deeper the more abundant. 
It is known that this pelagic life is ultimately dependent upon the 
shore for food supply. The open sea far distant from land contains 
little life, unless it be conveyed by currents originating near land. The 
narrow and deep channels of Southeast Alaska furnish a superior 
environment for plankton life ; to the wholl}^ free-swimming forms, 
such as copepods, ostracods, etc., there is added the innumerable 
progeny of the littoral forms, such as crabs, worms, mollusks, and 
shore-spawning fishes. 

ABUNDANCE OF FOOD. 

As a test of the abundance of this salmon food material, during the 
summer of 1905 numerous hauls were made throughout Yes Bay and 
into Behm Canal. Yes Bay is a long, narrow inlet less than one-half 
mile in width and over 4 miles in length, the depth varying from 50 
feet at the head to over 50 fathoms at the mouth. It receives sev- 
eral small creeks at the head and the main stream from Yes Lake, 
about midway between the two extremities. During the summer 



58 SALMON AND TBOUT IN ALASKA. 

months the surface temperatures vary between 55° and 60°, the 
lower nearer the mouth. The surface densities depend almost wholly 
upon the precipitation. During ordinary weather the head of .the 
bay, from the pushing up of the dense bottom layers of water by the 
tides, acquires about half the density of sea water; midway, on account 
of the volume from the main stream from Yes Lake, the density is 
reduced to about one-fourth that of sea w^ater, increasing to one-third 
or more as the mouth of the bay is approached. During freshets the 
surface density is much reduced, the water becoming practically fresh 
at times. The bottom temperatures vary from about 50° at the head 
in 50 feet of water to 44° in 330 feet at the mouth, with corresponding 
densities of about 1.018 — or nearly three-fourths the density of sea 
water — to 1.0235, or closel}^ approximating standard density. The 
tows exhibit a very scant population of food forms in the upper bay, 
with a gradual increase as the mouth is approached and a sudden rise 
upon entrance to the main channel outside. In the fresher waters 
jellyiishes predominate; with increasing density and depth the crus- 
taceans increase in number. 

This whole subject of the distribution of pelagic forms is of funda- 
mental importance in the study of the sea habits of the salmon. With 
the pelagic forms, of course, must be considered also the shore forms, 
such, for instance, as the common amphipods (beach lice), which may 
be found under stones at low water; perhaps, also, certain mollusks, 
etc. The factors of temperature, density, light, depth of bottom, 
proximity of shore, set and velocity of currents, influence of land 
drainage, etc., require to be carefully studied. As yet nothing has 
been attempted in Alaskan waters toward the solution of these 
problems. 

It will be noted that the Karluk sockeyes taken in salt water in 
June are of greater average size than those taken on subsequent dates 
at the same place. Further, that the average size of the June spec- 
imens is about twice that of the migrants from the Nalia taken only 
a few weeks earlier at Loring. If these Karluk sockeyes are 
accounted yearlings of average size for the locality, which have left 
the lake not earlier than April, more likely in Ma}^, they either have 
increased very rapidly in size since reaching salt water or were much 
larger than Naha yearlings at the time of migration. But for the 
uniformity of size it would seem more probable that the specimens 
procured are the selected larger examples, the smaller escaping 
through the meshes of the seine. There is the possibility that these 
larger individuals were fry that reached salt water the previous sum- 
mer, and that the absence of smaller specimens in the collections is 
due merely to the escape of the fry and fingerling migrants of the 
same season through the large meshes of the seme. That year- 
lings from Karluk Lake are larger than those of the same age from 
the small lakes of Southeast Alaska may well be believed in view of 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 59 

the larger size of examples noted in Wallowa and Alturas lakes and 
the Eraser River. 

The dog-salmon young, cited above, vary from a little over 40 mm. 
to 120 mm.; the humpback show approximately the same figures. 
These, are unquestionably of the fry that reached salt water in March 
and April just previous. The catches date about three months later. 
This indicates an increase of about 100 per cent in that length of 
time, or about twice the rate of growth of the sockeyes that remain 
in fresh water. In other words, the species (or individuals) that reach 
salt water as fry make about the same growth in the first three 
months that the lake residents (sockeyes) make in twelve. The com- 
parison of fall catches of cohos and sockeyes in the lakes shows the 
former to exceed the latter greatly in size, but this is only a natural 
result of the colio's greater size from the fry stage to the adult. In 
the case of the humpback, however, the fry is scarcely larger than 
that of the sockeye, and the adult somewhat smaller. Its more 
rapid growth can be attributed only ^ to the abundance of food in 
salt water and the nature of the fish. The sockeye young which 
were taken in salt water must be yearlings. Owing to the lateness 
of the migration of that species it is impossible for them to have 
attained such size in the time since they could have reached salt 
water as fry of that same season. 

It will be seen that in general the four species of salmon are closely 
associated in sea habit. Wliile small they remain much of the time 
close inshore, to some extent feeding on the insects that fall on the 
water or are carried down by the streams. The greater part of the 
food, however, is the various crustacean forms, though the small fry 
of marine species make up no small part, particularly of the coho's 
food. With increasing age the salmon doubtless move into deeper 
water. If the habit of preying on small fishes continues and grows 
with the increase of size, it would seem that the young salmon would 
be remarked in pursuit of the schools of young herring, sand launces, 
and such forms that abound in the bays and coast waters. No note 
of this has been recorded. Occasional catches of slightly larger fish 
are made from time to time, possibly fish of the second year. Such 
cohos are well known in Puget Sound, and a run of some small sal- 
mon was observed in Naha Bay during the winter of 1896-97. But 
unless such fish in large numbers api)roached the surface of some 
small body of water near a settlement, they would scarcely attract 
attention though the channels were teeming with them. 

The salt-water habits of young trout and charrs are entirely 
unknown. 

RETURN OF ADULTS TO FRESH WATER. 

From the yearling stage to the adult little is known of any of the 
salmons, and nothing of the sockeye. There are reports of grown 
fish of that species taken in the winter in various places, as in the 



60 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

vicinity of Karliik and near Union Bay, Cleveland Peninsula; but 
the identification of these catches has not been authenticated. The 
only pertinent fact regarding their place of. residence after leaving 
the vicinity of the parent streams, if they leave it, is that the pres- 
ence of adult fish is first noted at the time when they are apparently 
rounding some point in their progress from more open water. Such 
places are Point Iliggins, at the entrance to Behm Canal ; Cape Cha- 
con, at the lower end of Clarence Straits, and Otter and Sheringham 
points, on Juan de Fuca Straits. Karluk River is apparently 
approached directly from the open straits. 

APPROACH OF SCHOOLS. 

The presence ot salmon can bo noted only by their habit of leaping 
from the water as they approach the land. It is often possible by 
this means not only to recognize the presence of a school, but also to 
distinguish the species. In jumping, salmon do not leave the water 
with their ventral surface downward, as-do flying-fishes. They always 
jump sidewise with one side at an acute angle to the water surface. 
Sockeyes seldom entirely clear the water, but let the tail drag for some 
distance, fall on the side, and then perhaps skim the water for a short 
space. They may make two or three successive jumps, apparently at 
random and in varying directions. Cohos usually leave the water 
entirely, falling back on the caudal peduncle held rigid with the fin 
directed upward. The tail may then drag through the water a short 
distance till the fish falls on its side and disappears. The humpbacks 
jump very agilely and characteristically. They leap clear of the 
water, shaking the tails vigorously while in the air, sometimes turn- 
ing completely with a corkscrew motion. On falling they strike on 
the side. 

The cause of this jumping has been much discussed. It was noted 
that a school of kings feeding in Naha Bay in December, 1903, jumped 
in much the same manner as fish on the way to the spawning grounds, 
but apparently not so frequently, probably because of the small num- 
ber of individuals under observation. The sockeye travels in large 
and compact schools when approaching the spawning regions, and the 
jumping should be easily accounted for in the natural playfulness of 
groups of animals or the struggle for preferred position. Stomachs of 
netted fish often contain salmon scales and teeth, the latter frequently 
the individual's own. But these are doubtless swallowed during the 
struggles in the net and not by reason of previous combats. 

Under certain conditions the schools exhibit little tendency to 
jump. In 1903 large numbers of sockeyes entered Karluk River 
without such announcement. Of course it is not known whether this 
species feeds in schools in salt water, or whether it is only the approach 
of sex maturity that impels the gathering into schools. From the 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



61 



arrangement of tlie gillrakers, and the few observations made on feed- 
ing fish, it may be surmised that the larger part of their nutriment is 
derived from pelagic Crustacea and associated forms. They are 
known to feed at times on small fishes. In striking into a school of 
small fish from below they might be led to broach the siu'face. In 
towing for plankton food there would be no such occasion. No 
authentic observation of sockeyes in open ocean has been reported, 
but inasmuch as no search has been made for them the matter 
remains without evidence. It is probable that they do not jump in 
feeding, and tlius they are unobserved up to the time they start for 
the spawning beds. 

FOOD AND FEEDING. 
THE SOCKEYE. 

It is reported that the Fraser River schot)ls, even before leaving 
Juan de Fuca Strait, have ceased to feed. In Southeast Alaska it was 
found that a certain percentage of the earlier catches, even at the 
mouths of the rivers they were presumed to bo entering, were still 
feeding. This is shown in the following table: — 

Food of Adult Sockeyes. 





Total 
num- 
ber 
ex- 
am- 
ined. 

120 
3* 

512 

400 
<510 

692 

.'■,00 

/.'•)12 

100 
.511 

100 
a. 514 

^•200 
511 


Number having 
eaten fish. 


Number having 
eaten Crustacea. 


Number having 
eaten worms. 


Total 
with 
food. 


Per 
cent 
of to- 
tal 
with 
food. 


Locality and date. 


Male. 

4 

1 
3 


Fe- 
male. 

2 
""'3' 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Karta Bay: 

July 1-4, 1903 

July 23-26, 1003... 
July 1 (J, 1904 


6 














a 6 5 


1 
6 




1 


1 








2 1 








* 6 1 11 


Yes Bay: 

July 17-20, 1903 . . . 
.\ug. 16-21,1904.. 
July26toAug. 14, 
190,5 


1. 

3 

112 


"3 

85 

.S3 
6 

11 


1 

6 

197 

18:5 
13 

23 
74 








1 1 ■' 








1 
16 

1 


6 


1 
32 

1 


7 i 13 








d 197 ! '>s d 


Boca de Quadra: 
July 30 to Aug. .5, 
1903 








100 

1-' 
32 


e 184 


36 8 


Aug. 24-29, 1904.. 
Kogan, Moira Sonn<l: 

Aug. 14, 1903 

July 24-29, 1904... 
Nowisk.ay, Moira 
Sound: 

Aug. 17-19, 1903... 








13 

,.23 
A 93 


126 

9 



9 15 




i 








23.0 


13 


8 


21 




1 


1 


18.2 



Julyl4to Aug. 12, 
1904 


,59 
2 


60 119 
1 3 


5 
1 


5 


6 








24.5 


Uolomi, Moira Sound: 

Aug. 21 and 23, 

1903 








4.5 


■ Aug. 4-11 1904.... 


1 


.0 














Total 


5,482 






1 


648 










1 1 





a Ammodytes. 

b Ammodytes, except 1 with herring. 

■c In the last 111 examined, Aug. 20 and 21, the stomachs were all empty. 

d Many stomachs with medusse, some with purple ctenophores (?), which occur in about 50 fathoms 
of water in daylight. 

« Mostly larval crabs; also some small sehizopod (?) forms. 

/ In the 57 examined on Aug. 29, all stomachs empty. 

9 Mostly a small shrimp-like form. 

li Ammodytes, Crustacea, mostly as above, but also crab larvse. No food in stomachs of the 69 
examined on July 24. 

» The 100 examined Aug. 21 were empty. 



62 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

Stomachs of adult sockeyes, as the fish are taken for commercial 
uses, are commonly empty. In many cases the shrinkage which 
follows the termination of feeding is pronounced, but usually the 
upper limb is still lax, with only that degree of contraction due to 
its emptiness, and the pyloric limb and coeca are still undiminished 
in size. On the other hand, schools are sometimes taken in which 
the shrinkage of all parts of the digestive tract is pronounced and 
the characteristic yellow slimy or curdy secretion fills the canal. 
The stomachs not infrequently contain scales, teeth, bits of vegeta- 
ble debris, etc., all of which is probably incident to the pursing of 
large numbers in the nets and consequent struggles of the fish. In 
many cases the esophageal cavity is filled with a clear viscid liquid, 
which appears to be largely dissolved jell3rfish. 

In the examples examined at Yes Bay in 1905, undissolved por- 
tions of the common globular ctenophore frequently occurred. Tliis 
same form was taken in great abundance in the surface and sub- 
surface towings in the bay and in Behm Canal just off the bay. In 
addition, fragments were found of what seemed to be the larger 
ellipsoidal, purple ctenophore taken in towings in Behm Canal and 
elsewhere only in depths of 50 fathoms or more. It is not kno^vn 
whether this form rises at night, hence its presence indicates nothing 
as to the depth at which the salmon feeds. Much the greater part 
of the food observed is crustacean. In the examples from Boca de 
Quadra, 1903, which have the highest percentage (36.8) of food- 
containing individuals of any lot examined, the material is almost 
wholly larval crabs, a few of the macruran forms also occurring. 
In Kegan examples the common crustacean form is a, small macruran, 
though a few crab larvfie also were noted. In Yes Bay the most 
widely distributed form is a macruran, but crab larvae are present 
in great quantity. Yes Bay salmon stomachs showed much the 
same aggregation of forms that the tow net developed, which indi- 
cates that the food is taken by "towing." 

Among the stomachs of sockeye salmon taken at Karta Bay, in 
Moira Sound, and at Hetta, were found some containing sand launces 
(Ammodytes alascanus), in instances as high as 83 individuals in a 
single stomach. In these waters large schools of sand launces some- 
what more than half grown are numerous during July and August. 
Schools of young herring occur earlier and during the same period, 
but in only one instance was a herring found in an adult sockeye 
stomach. In Yes Bay a small clanl worm, identified by Dr. J. Percy 
Moore as Callizona angelini (Kinberg) Apstein, was found in 32 
stomachs, or over 4 per cent of those examined. Several of theses 
worms were sometimes found in a single stomach, as if they had been 
assembled by selective feeding. A very few were noted at Boca de 
Quadra and at Kegan. These worms were taken only in the sub- 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 63 

surface towings at Yes Bay, but they probably came to the surface 
in the evening at that season. 

It is remarked, in general, that the earlier runs of iish contain a 
higher percentage of feeding individuals than the later. Much 
depends also on the locality. At Dolomi practicalh" all the fishing 
is done in a small bay almost at the river's mouth. It is improbable 
that the fish enter this bay in great numbers until ready to ascend 
the stream. Of 511 examples opened August 4 to 11, 1904, none 
contained food; many of these stomachs were shnmken, but some 
were still lax. Of 200 examined August 21 to 23, 1903, none of the 
first hundred contained food. These fish were of a distinctive type, 
more or less characteristic, long, slender, and dark in color. Of the 
second hundred, taken two days later, 9 were feeding on sand launces 
and crustaceans. These were brighter fish of a different type — 
deeper and more resembling the fish of other localities. 

The fishing at Nowiska}- was done by a single crew, hence ordi- 
narih^ all or nearly all were taken near the mouth of the river. In 
1904, owing to the scarcity of fish, the crew sometimes hauled in the 
lower end of the arm, which may help to account for the larger num- 
ber of feeding fish taken that season. This same circumstance has 
a bearing on the fish examined at Yes Bay in 1905. A greater part 
of the fishing was done in Behm Canal than in former seasons. The 
paucity of food material in the bays may sufficiently explain why 
the salmon do not approach the rivers until about ready to make 
the ascent. 

Digestion in fishes is ordinarily quite rapid, and for this reason we 
may be sure that food found has been recently ingested; but the 
fishing crews are out with the daylight, and our knowledge of the dis- 
tribution of forms at that hour is too limited to permit any conclu- 
sions as to the depth at which salmon feed. 

The presence of such large percentages of feeding fish might lead 
to the supposition that the fish were still on the natural feeding 
grounds and had not yet been made subject to the changed instincts 
of approaching maturity. This view is somewhat supported by the 
absence of food as reported in the large schools of the greater rivers 
at relatively earlier dates. On the other hantl may be noted the fact 
that the Alaskan schools are much smaller, hence the opportunity 
to feed, if the instinct to do so still remains, is much better. A 
salmon stomach at any time, if empty for a period, becomes con- 
tracted and gives the appearance of being shrunken. This perhaps 
is due to the lack of blood in the tissues and the action of the con- 
tractile fibers. It is noted in migrating fingerlings as well as in adult 
fish. With the presence of food and excitation of secretion, blood 
will return to the tissues, the bulk of the ingested mass will stretch 
10731—07 5 



64 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

the fibers, and the feeding appearance will return. « It is probable 
that the sea habitat of salmon will be ultimately disclosed, if at all, 
by a study of their food and its distribution. 

KING SALMON. 

In recent years it has been learned that schools of king salmon feed 
in the channels and bays of Alaska during the winter. In 1903 they 
were first observed off Naha Bay late in December. Their presence 
was apparently due to the presence of a large shoal of herring, upon 
which they were feeding. The stomachs contained only herring, in 
one case 9 full-sized fish being counted in the stomach of a salmon 
that was still hungry enough to take the troll. Since the above date 
a valuable winter fishery for king salmon has been established.^ Pre- 
viously they had been taken only at the time the herring were ap- 
proaching their spawning beaches, about April and May, continuing 
to a greater or less extent throughout the summer in various regions. 
Their movement apparently depends entirely on that of the herring, 
which in turn may be supposed to be governed at other times than its 
spawning season by the abundance of its food ; it is well known to be 
erratic in its appearance. The problems of the food supply of the 
herring in Alaska have not been considered. 

The appearance of the salmon in Monterey Bay m the spring has 
been taken to be of the same character, i. e., a moving inshore with 
their food, which here consists of sardines, anchovies, smelts, and 
other small fishes, squid, and Crustacea.*^ It has been assumed 
incidentally that these fish are also on their way to the Sacramento 
to spawn. It does not appear that any careful study of their food, 
condition of maturity, or even species has been made. 

The facility with which the king salmon is taken witli a troll, and 
the consequent interest of anglers, may account for the fuller knowl- 
edge of the winter habits of this species. Of the other four species, 
only one takes a troll, namely, the coho. 

THE COHO. 

Little is known of the food of the adult coho. Its habit of approach- 
ing the rivers late, when almost sexually mature, and running at once 
into the stream, makes it difficult to study in this regard. The food 
contents of the immature cohos taken in Puget Sound have not been 
reported. The adults are known to take the troll readily, which indi- 
cates that they feed on small fishes.'' Their early exhibition of this 

oRutter, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xxii, 1902, p. 126. 

& See footnote d below. 

c Annual Report of the Department of Fisheries of Oregon for 1902, p. 69-78. 

d " Since 1904 during the winter fishing for king salmon numbers of cohos also have 
been taken. Up to 1907 only troll lines have been used, but traps have been pre- 
pared for use during 1907-8." (Fassett.) 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA, 65 

instinct supports the inference, as does also the character of the 
mouth parts, teeth, and gillrakers. Two examples were seen at 
Karta Bay the first of August filled with sand launces; another con- 
tained a herring. One example, a female, taken at Quadra early in 
August, was filled with crab larvae, the same material upon which 
sockeyes were feeding at the time. 

HUMPBACK AND DOG SALMON. 

The humpback is ordinarily not feediijg at the time it is taken in 
the cannery seines. Of a number examined at Karta Bay early in 
August, some of the males contained crustaceans and in one instance 
a sand launce; none of the females had food. At this time the males 
exceeded the females in number in the ratio of 50 to 15. At Kegan 
early in August a few humpbacks were found containing the macru- 
ran from that locality. At Karluk, July 30, they were found to be 
feeding about equally on sand launces and Crustacea. 

The dog salmon has not been examined for feeding habits. I.iiko 
the coho, it approaches the streams late, and as a rule the stomachs 
are then empty. 

RELATION OF FOOD SUPPLY TO NUMBER OF ADULT SALMON. 

The abundance of food has a direct relation to the number of adidt 
salmon that may be produced. The propagation of countless myriads 
of fry can result only in their cannibalism if the supply of other 
food is lacking. The dependence of the different species of salmon 
upon other fishes is probably about in the same ratio as their average 
size. The largest, the king, is largely dependent on the herring, sand 
launce, cod, etc., for its subsistence, as are, doubtless, also the coho 
and dog. The two smaller species, humpback and sockeye, are bet- 
ter adapted to live on the more minute life. They are not known to 
take a troll at any time. Their food is, at least largely, the food of 
the species which in turn support the king salmon. The interrelation 
has reached a nice adjustment in nature which, while not understood 
in detail, is known to exist. The extinction of the herring might 
lead to increased food supply for the growing sockeye. At the same 
time it would deprive the dogfish and king salmon of their natural 
aliment and cause them to become a menace to the otherwise favored 
species. Onl}^ upon complete knowledge of the various elements of 
animal life can recommendations be safely made regarding more 
obvious matters. Empirical regulations may be successful, but rational 
legislation must ultimately rest upon results from the bolting-silk 
tow nets and the microscope. 



66 SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 

AGE OF ADULT SALMON. 

The age of the sockeye at maturity is yet not absolutely determined. 
It is unnecessary to do more than refer to the four-year theory based 
on the quadrennial increase in the Eraser River run. There seems to 
be sufficient reason for believing four years to be the usual term of life 
for the sockeye and the king salmon, but experiment has pretty con- 
clusively shown that they may mature in less time or may be retarded 
beyond that term. 

It is possible that the humpback reaches maturity in less time. The 
rapid growth of the young and the biennial occurrence of the species 
in Puget Sound may be noted in support of this belief. The small 
size and irregular number in certain localities may be adduced also. 
A fish of a short growth-period would be more apt to show rapid 
fluctuation in numbers than a form overlapping a variable series of 
years. At Yes Bay in 1903 many very large males occurred, in some 
cases reaching a weight of 11-i pounds. These were already much 
"humped" and advanced in sex maturity, whereas the main body of 
fish were still bright. Their occurrence was unusual and the size 
extraordinary. The fishermen believed them survivors of a previous 
season. The grilse form has not been noted among the humpbacks 
or dogs.'* It has been reported for the coho by Mr. Patching, but 
not seen by the writer. 

SALMON-MARKING EXPERIMENTS. 

Methods. — In an effort to determine the exact age of maturity, fish 
have been variously marked. As against the results thus obtained it 
has been asserted that any mutilations can be of no value, since the 
nmtilated part will regenerate. There have been a number of trials 
of marks. Hubbard, experimenting in the Clackamas River, by re- 
moval of the adipose fin is supposed to have determined maturity to 
arrive in the king salmon at three, four, and five years — mainly at 
three. Richardson, at Karluk, by removing the dorsal fin in the same 
manner, arrived at four years as the average age of the sockeye. In 
August, 1903, 1,600 sockeye fry, reared for the purpose at the Fort- 
mann Hatchery from the 1902 eggs, were marked by excising both 
ventrals with fine curved scissors. The fry were released at a point 
in the Naha just above Heckman Lake as soon as marked, at which 
time they were about 3 months old. In 1906 between 50 and 100 
adult sockeyes with ventral fins missing were reported by the super- 
intendent of the hatchery at Yes Lake from the spawning beds 
there. Some had also the adipose fin removed ; this mark in addition 
had been used on some of the fry mentioned above. At the Fort- 

a See p. 9. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 67 

mann Platchery, where they were marked, only 2 of these fish were 
obtained in 1906." There is no doubt that these fish noted at the 
hatcheries were identical with the fry so marked. In careful measure- 
ments of over 7,000 sockeyes during two summers and casual inspec- 
tion of many thousands during five seasons in Alaska, the writer has 
seen but one example of a salmon without ventrals, and in that case 
the fish was entirely without any indication that fins had ever begun 
to develop and was doubtless a monstrosity. The 2 samples sent in 
from Loring show the stubs of the fins just as would be expected from 
an amputation performed in the manner stated. This experiment, 
so far, supports the four-year theory. 

In the spring of 1904 several thousand of the yearlings trapped at 
the head of Naha Bay were marked by the complete amputation of 
both dorsals. These fish were the same age as the fry mentioned 
above as marked the previous summer. There has been no record of 
the return of any of these latter. It is believed that the handling 
resulted in great loss and the percentage of survivors was too small to 
obtain notice even if, as is probable, the complete regeneration of the 
fin did not make the marking useless. A similar experiment at the 
Clackamas hatchery in the summer of 1904 has so far produced no 
result. 

Mr. Rutter made several experiments in branding fingerlings, and 
reached the conclusion that it can be successfully done. Unfamil- 
iarity with methods ordinarily used in branding led him first to try a 
five-pointed star. As was to be expected, when the fish survived the 
severe burn of the iron, which was seldom, the scar rapidly became 
formless by obliteration of the points. Subsequent experiments de- 
veloped that a wire is a better instrument, the heat being applied 
wholly on fine lines, burning the skin but not injuring adjoining 
tissue. Any design with lines which do not cross, and which will not 
resemble in sharp angles or parallels the wounds of the teeth of preda- 
tory animals, will answer. 

It is believed that if fin amputation is demonstrated as a feasible 
mark it should be performed on the small fingerlings. Fish under 2 
inches are less susceptible to injury by handling. The fingerlings, 
after the formation of scales, are very easily injured, the scales part- 
ing from the skin upon the least touch. Their struggles when handled 
will almost infallibly produce abrasions. The experiment of anaestheti- 
zing has not been made. 

Regeneration of lost parts. — Regarding reproduction of lost parts, 
authorities dift'er. It was believed by Gtinther * that "the power of 
reproduction of lost parts in Teleosteous fishes is limited to the deli- 
cate terminations of the fin rays," etc. 

** Seven more of these marked fish have been reported taken at the Fortmann 
Hatchery during the fall of 1907 up to September 29. 
''Giinther, Introduction to the study of fishes, p. 188. 



68 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

Jordan " reiterates essentially the same statement, and this belief 
was held also by Weismann. Thomas Hunt Morgan hlCs by experi- 
ment demonstrated a slightly greater power of regeneration of lost 
extremities of fins than had previously been held to exist. After 
amputation of the distal portions of the caudal in the mudfish (Fun- 
dulus heteroclitus) regeneration was distinctly marked in from seven to 
twelve days, indicating the ultimate reproduction of a perfect fin. In 
further experiments both the paired and median fins of this fish were 
found to possess the power of reproducing the distal portions after 
amputation. Similar regeneration in the caudal was demonstrated 
in the common scup (Stenotomus chrysops) and the mackerel shad 
{Decapterus macarellus). The presence of this fin-regenerative po- 
tency was also noted in the kingfish ( Menticirrhus saxaiilisC^:) ), the 
goldfish (Carassius auratus), a minnow (probably a Leuciscus), the 
stone cat (Noturus sp.), and others. In a spiny-rayed labroid 
(Ctenolahrus) a pectoral fui cut off at the middle regenerated com- 
pletely, and a pelvic (ventral) fin had partially regenerated when the 
fish was killed. In the toadfish {Opsanus tan) the pectoral fins re- 
generated only very slowly. In none of these experiments is it stated 
that a fin was cut away closely at its base. There seems to be no 
evidence that Giinther's original statement is incorrect. It was 
shown that in ordinary temperatures the beginning of regeneration 
is almost immediate where it does occur; hence it is perfectly safe to 
assume that in the removal of the adipose dorsal in the salmon no 
regeneration occurs, since no beginning of a new growth is evident 
several months after its excision. Nor do these experiments militate 
against the results of the Loring experiment of entire amputation of 
the ventrals, cited above. It is probable that in very cold water the 
beginning of regeneration will be much delayed. 

SALMON IN THE TROCADERO, AT PARIS. 

The most unassailable evidence of the age of king salmon adults 
has been rendered by the aquarium of the Trocadero^, in France. At 
that institution king salmon from eggs obtained in California have 
been reared for some twenty-five years, generation after generation. 
It has been found that four years is the usual age, but that females 
may mature in three and in some cases not until five years. The males 
are found to be more precocious, some maturing in their second year. 
This precocity is noted in nature in the "grilse" of the Sacramento 
and the "Arctic salmon" of the Alaskan sockeye. The occurrence 
of abnormally large fishes may be due to the delay of maturity until 
the fifth year. It was found at the a(}uarium that fish invariably 
died soon after completion of spawning. 

o Jordan, Guide to the study of fishes, vol. i, p. 150. 

& Bulletin de la Society Nationale d'Acclimatation de France, October, 1905. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 69 

The New Zealand experiment in acclimatizing salmon indicates 
that both the sockeye and the Idng reach maturity at the age of 4 
years. These two species have been successfully transplanted to 
New Zealand waters, and runs of mature well-developed fish returned 
in 1906 to the respective streams in wliich they were placed. An 
account of the results will appear in the Proceedings of the American 
Fisheries Society for 1 907 . 

FACTORS INFLUENCING RETURN TO FRESH \A^ATER. 

SEX INSTINCTS VERSUS CONDITION OF NUTRITION. 

The stimulus which it is assumed impels the salmon to seek again 
the fresh water is approaching maturity. Many known facts bring 
this assumption into question. The study of the Atlantic salmon by 
the Fishery Board for Scotland led to the conclusion that in that 
species the state of nutrition is the factor determining migration 
toward the river; that when the fish has accumulated the necessary 
supply of material it tends to return to its original habitat. In this 
conclusion it is assumed that the present sea-running race has been 
derived from a permanent freshwater-residing form. On the other 
hand it has been assumed for the Pacific salmon that at the time of 
separation of the early run to begin its travel into the stream, all of 
that school of salmon — both those that are to leave the sea at once 
and cease to feed and those that are to remain and continue to feed — 
are equally well nourished and equally developed. It is known that 
heavy floods in the springtime bring heavy spring runs, and cor- 
respondingly poor fall runs, and it will be shown that the early 
arrivals in Alaskan short streams are not so heavy in proportion to 
length as late arrivals. In all salmon the cessation of feeding upon 
or just previous to entering the fresh water brings a peculiar factor 
into the problem. When they start for the spawning beds the fish 
have two demands upon their supply of energy-producing stores, 
i. e., energy for the work of ascending the rivers, and material for the 
growth and development of the sex product — spawn and milt. In 
the case of fish entering long rivers, such as the Columbia and Fraser, 
the early run enters with a slightly developed generative product to 
build up and the entire trip to the headwaters to perform. The 
late run arrives with more fully developed sex organs and a much 
shorter journey to make. 

Since no fish known to enter the streams fail to become sexually 
mature the same season, and since fish retained permanently in fresh 
water do not mature the sex product until they have reached the 
appropriate age*^, it must still remain as the most reasonable con- 

oSee Rutter, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xxii, 1902, p. 109. This can 
not be cited as an exception to the above statement, since the assumption that the 
precocious maturation is due to residence in fresh water has no other support, and, 
moreover, sea-run males are known to return as sexually mature grilse. 



70 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

elusion that the reproductive purpose is mainly instrumental in bring- 
iu^x them into the streams. Correlated with tliis in determining the 
])articular time of year for the entrance into fresh water are sea- 
sonal influences, temperature, density, currents, character of the 
river, etc. There may be sufficient explanation of the variation in 
time of runs in the proposition advanced by Moser, viz, that in streams 
where the run is large both the precocious arrivals and the stragglers 
are in sufRcient number to be noted and recorded. But this can 
scarcely account for the distinctly double maxima noted in the runs 
of the Columbia and Sacramento rivers. The sockeye is said to 
"run" earliest in the Aleutian Islands, where it arrives in May. It 
is said to be found in the vicinity of Umnak Island all the year, in 
which case it must be feeding. In Bristol Bay the middle of June is 
given as the time of arrival, but the run is usually small until in July. 
At Karluk it is earlier, sometimes the first part of June, while in 
vSoutheast Alaska the arrival is delayed in certain streams until the 
second week in July. 

THE DIFFERENT RUNS. 

In large rivers different runs of salmon are noted — for example, in the 
Columbia and Sacramento the king salmon has two runs per year, 
or two maxima; the early fish are supposed to travel to the head- 
waters of the various tributaries which they enter, the later run not 
to ascend so far. The April-June (?) arrivals spawn in July and 
August; the later fish spawn September to November. The reason 
for the separation is unknown. A well-marked division appears only 
in the Columbia and Sacramento. In the former river both king and 
sockeye are so separated. The Karluk is said similarly to have two 
nms, one maximum about the last of June and one the first of August, 
but this was not true in 1903 when the river was under study. A 
double run might be supposed to bear some relation to the two 
migration periods of young, i. e., as fry or yearlings, but this is not 
borne out by the conditions in the Fraser, where such migrations 
are also known. In the Sacramento, the distance being short and 
the winters mild, the hatching periods and time of reaching salt 
water are distinct for each run. In the Columbia the elevation of 
the headwaters, with attendant low temperatures and distance which 
the fr}^ must travel to reach the sea, ma}^ equalize the time of arrival 
at salt water. 

The ([uestion whether an early liatched fry, the oft'spring of an 
early run parent, will in turn become an early run adult is of much 
importance in fish-cultural problems. In the Sacramento both runs 
receive attention at the propagating stations. On the Columbia it is 
mainly the late fish that are propagated, with what seems to be the 
result that early fish are becoming fewer. In the Fraser the early run 
may escape by reason of the close seasons. In short Alaskan streams 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 71 

both early and late fish occupy the same grounds. The late comers 
thus destroy the early eggs to a considerable extent. Partly from 
this cause, perhaps, double runs are not well established ; perhaps the 
fact that the volume of the streams is insufficient to carry the stimulus 
of the fresh water to the spring feeding ground permits the fish to 
remain together until all are induced by approaching maturity to 
direct their movement toward the coast. 

Rutter found that of over 25,000,000 artificially hatched fry placed 
in the Sacramento in 1897-98, in addition to the product of natural 
reproduction, less than 1,000,000 remained as summer residents. 
The following year the stations hatched about 17,000,000 from the 
two runs, with probably a greater natural production than the pre- 
vious year. The fry passed the lower river between the middle of 
January and last of March, with maxima about six weeks separated 
(January 25-30 and March 8-13), or less than half the interval that 
separates the adult runs, if we assume that the fry taken in January 
at Walnut Grove were from the early run eggs, as we must by con- 
sideration of temperatures and the observed rate of travel. This does 
not bear out the opinion that runs remain distinct. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Adjacent streams may have different seasons, i. e., time of run. 
The variations in the small streams of the Loring district are of inter- 
est. The early streams are the Naha, with dates of June 14-26 for 
the first fishing; Karta Bay, June 13-26, and with these may be 
included Klawak, June 16-29. The late streams are Yes Bay, July 
11-17; the Moira Sound group (Dolomi, Kegan, and Nowiskay), 
July 8-25; Quadra, July 13. The streams here listed as early 
streams all drain lake areas of considerable surface and of a character 
that would occasion an early rise in temperature. The late streams 
have lakes of smaller total area or greater elevation and high sur- 
rounding ridges. The temperature data at hand are entirely too 
scant to demonstrate the difference suggested, but the few figures 
obtained seem to point to such a condition. They indicate that the 
streams are somewhat warmer than the surface in the adjacent salt 
water at the time of the run, i. e., that the fish leave the colder for 
warmer water. 

June 30 a line of observations was carried from the Naha to Karta 
Bay. Oft" Loring the surface was 57°, density 1.0133. With some 
variations the temperature reached its maximum, 59.5°, about midway 
across Behm Canal, with density lowered to 1.0112; from this point 
both temperature and density decreased until oft" Cape Caamano, 
where the temperature had reached 54.5° and the density had fallen 
to 1.0108-1.0110. Off the cape a momentary rise in density — 
1.0136 — occurred. Crossing Clarence Strait the temperature varied 



72 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

around 55° — density rising from 1.012 to 1.0216 — with which 
increased density the temperature fell again to 51°, and this, falling 
in places to 50°, was carried* with a density of about 1.020 through 
Kasaan Bay into Karta Bay, when the density abruptly dropped to 
about 1.012, with almost no change in temperature. 

These figures show a general decrease in temperature correspond- 
ing to a rise in density. They show further that the surface density 
and temperature of Kasaan Bay is little affected by the fresh water 
from the Karta stream, whereas Behm Canal is markedly affected by 
its affluents. At this season sockeyes are running into both the 
colder waters of Karta Bay and the warmer waters of Naha Bay. 
The Karta Bay fish are reported to be seen first farther south along 
the west side of Clarence Strait. Hence they may never come in 
contact with the currents from Behm Canal. 

Another series of observations was made July 30 and 31, 1903, 
from Kegan stream to Dolomi via Old Johnson Stream opposite 
Kegan. In the Kegan Basin the temperature was 60° and density 
1.003; at the Kegan fish scow, anchored just outside the mouth of 
the stream, the temperature was about 53° and density somewhat 
over 1.020; in the middle of Moira Sound, between the two streams, 
the temperature fell to 51° and density rose to near 1.022. In Old 
Johnson Bay a temperature of 54° and a density of over 1.020 were 
found. Passing down the sound, the temperature fell gradually, but 
varying, to 51°, with corresponding rise in density to near 1.022. The 
inflow from North Arm (Nowiskay) could scarcely be noted. The 
lowest temperature was found off Point Adams, 48°, with a density 
of over 1.022.' The stream at Dolomi exhibited no influence outside 
the arm into which it flows. At the fish scow in the inner bay 
the temperature was 57° and density 1.0032. Five minutes' run of 
the tug reached water of 52° F. and density of over 1.020. 

If the fish travel on the flood tide, it must be necessary for them to 
approach these small streams very closely in order to feel the influ- 
ence. The observations recorded above are all surface, where the 
greatest change would be made by the fresh water. It would seem 
scarcely possible to detect the river water outside the small basins or 
estuaries at a few feet below the surface. 

It is not impossible that the incoming schools closely follow the 
coast line. For example, it has been stated" thkt sockeyes enter 
Uyak Bay, on the east side of Harvester Island, pass to the south 
and east side of the bay, thence to the mouth of Larsen Bay, after 
which they follow the west side of the bay at some distance from 
the shore and pass out again into Shelikof Strait at the point where 
first seen. Since Uyak Bay contains no sockeye streams, such 

"■A. B. Alexander, ins. notes. 



SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 73 

movements of a school, if they occur, can be regarded only as explora- 
tion either for food or spawning streams. 

Other interesting temperature questions are raised by the sockeyes' 
selection for spawning of such streams as the one at Bartlett Bay.'* 
It may be postulated that streams with lakes at levels accessible 
to salmon possess a liigher summer temperature than streams of 
similar volume without lakes. There is a class of streams, however, 
such as that at Bartlett Bay, where the lake outlet furnishes only 
a small part of the volume of the main stream. In the Bartlett Bay 
stream a temperature of 46° at the mouth June 26 decreased to 39° 
before the lake in which the sockeyes spawn was reached. The 
main volume of the stream is glacial water, and there is nothing at 
the mouth to intimate to human intelligence the existence of lakes 
and suitable spawning beds in its course. With even tliis temper- 
ature, however, the river was probably warmer than the surrounding 
salt water, in which ice was then drifting. 

CURRENTS. 

The influence of tide or current in salt water apparently varies, 
for reports are contradictory. The Fraser River sockeyes are said 
to travel on the flood, i. e., with the current. Salmon enter San 
Francisco Bay on the ebb. At Karluk they come in on the first of 
the ebb, or preferably on flood just before the current from the 
lagoon changes. In the Kvichak the last of the flood and the whole 
of the ebb are said to be the best fishing. By this they must approach 
on the flood and take the river on the ebb. It is also claimed that a 
southwest wind blows the fish inshore in Bristol Bay, whereas a 
northeast wind at Karluk is alleged to prevent their approach. The 
value of these observations regarding winds is lessened by the fact 
that certain winds prevent the operation of gear and perhaps influence 
the salmon not to expose their presence by jumping. It is believed 
that many fish, in 1903 estimated at some 2,000,000, reached 
Karluk Lake in this way by passing the bay and estuary unobserved. 
A similar instance was noted by Mr. Cobb on the Ugaguk in 1906, 
when an ofl'shore wind had not prevented the schools from reaching 
the fishing ground. It seems probable that inshore winds, besides 
obscuring the presence of fish, will accelerate their movement by 
assisting the current shoreward, while an opposite wind will retard 
this. 

In such streams as Dolomi it is inconceivable that a current influence 
can be felt beyond the small bay at its mouth. This may explain 
why only small fishes reach it, such small fishes perhaps traveling 
closer to the shore. On the other hand, none of the small salmon 
streams of that region can maintain the identity of their currents 

oMoser, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, vol. xxi, 1901, p. 374. 



74 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 

far beyond the receivino; ba3^s, and if currents are a prominent 
factor fish enterino; Behni Canal should all travel to th^ Unuk. 

The influence of flood water on schools near a river's movith may 
be due in part to an increased temperature of the water as well as to 
an augmented volume. It is well known that in dry seasons, when 
the streams are low, even though a sufficient depth for a practicable 
ascent may remain, schools tarry in the bays much longer than in 
rainy seasons. But as this is marked only in the case of small streams, 
the main factor must be the volume or quantity of water. 

ASCENT OF STREAMS. 

The speed of the salmons' ascent of rivers is perhaps modified 
by various conditions. In short streams of Southeast Alaska large 
fish are not noted in the rivers except wliile passing difficult falls. 
In the Naha they seem to make the distance from tide water to the 
lakes traveling at night, hence not observed. At Dorr Falls, on the 
Naha, humpbacks wliich were constantly jumping at the fall through- 
out the day made no attempts at night. This lack of movement 
at night can not hold for waters of other character. 

Observations on the Karluk indicated that about ten days were 
consumed in making the ascent there, a rate of 2 to 3 miles per day, 
the main movement occurring after 4 o'clock p. m. 

Rutter estimated that the spring run of king salmon in the Sacra- 
mento ascend from the ocean to their spawning beds at the average 
rate of 10 miles per day. If some of this time is lost in the ebb and 
flow of tides in the bay, the rate in the river is in excess of this. 
The fall run, he determined, ascended the river at the rate of 4 or 5 
miles per day. Earlier observers supposed the fall fish to travel 
the faster." Sockeyes are reported to reach the Quesnel Dam, 500 
miles up the Fraser, about the middle of August; in 1906 the first 
arrived July 26. These are perhaps the fish entering the river in 
May and June, and if so they travel at a rate between 5 and 10 
miles per day up a rapid river — ascending in that time to an altitude 
of 2,250 feet. The run continues at this point until September, 
perhaps including a part of the heavy July run at the mouth of the 
river. This would indicate that the rate of ascent is more nearly 
the higher figure, or that it is about equal to that of the early 
Sacramento fish. The variation between this movement and that 
in the Karluk is notable. Does it indicate any knowledge on the 
part of the fish as to the extent of the journey that is to be performed t 

No observations are recorded regarding the movement of the coho 
or of the steelhead. The coho probably ascends rapidly when travel- 
ing for such points as the Wallowa and Baker Lake regions. The 
time occupied by schools of fish in the brackish water before entering 

"Report Commissioners of Fisheries, California, 1876-77, p. 10. 



SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA. 75 

the stream proper seems to vary with locaHty, species, and time of 
year. In some cases it is perhaps necessary that some time be so 
spent to inure the fish to the fresh water. Their natural timidity in 
approaching shallows has been mentioned above. This may be due 
to th,e exposure entailed or to recognized dangers in swift water. 
Adult sockeyes released at the foot of Seton Lake passed through the 
17 or 18 miles of that body of water to its upper extremity in from 
eight and one-half to about eleven hours, presumably in daylight. 

INTERVAL BETWEEN ARRIVAL AND SPAWNING. 

The early arrivals of salmon spend some time in the region of the 
spawning beds before depositing any spawn. In the Naha the first 
sockeyes reach the lakes in June, but none spawn earlier than about 
the middle of August — after a lake residence of about six weeks. In 
the Karluk in 1903 the first sockeyes entered the lake about the 
middle of June; they continued to arrive in numbers until the latter 
part of July. They spawned during August. The first arrivals, as 
in the Naha, thus spent about six weeks in the lake and all remained 
at least four weeks before spawning. In the Eraser basin in 1905 
the first fish reached Seton Lake the latter part of July, the nm 
continuing until the latter part of September. The first eggs were 
spawned the first week of September, and spawning continued until 
late in October. This was approximately the same length of resi- 
dence before spawning as in the Naha and the Karluk. 

During the residence in the lakes it is improbable that the fish 
occupy the greater depths, since it has been showm that these are not 
suitable for fish life. In the evenings salmon may often be seen in 
numbers ''finning," i. e., swimming leisurely at the surface in such 
manner as to expose the dorsal fin. The sockeye seldom jumps in 
lakes until about to approach the spawning bed, when there may be 
a slight demonstration of that habit. Ordinarily a lake may be filled 
with adult fish and no evidence of their presence noted by the observer. 

The early king salmon also reach the beds some time before spawn- 
ing. They reach the McCloud late in June or early in July, but do 
not spawn until the middle of August. In the Idaho investigation it 
was found that they reached the upper Salmon Valley the last half 
of July, the spawning occurring approximately a month later. All 
sockeyes had entered Alturas Lake before July 20 and spawned from 
the 23d until into September, the height of the season being about 
the last of August. The fish seem to have spent at least a month in 
the lake. 

The late-running species — coho, humpback, and dog — arrive only a 
short time before maturity. 



76 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

PARENT STREAMS. 

The election by salmon of certain streams as a spawning ground 
to the exclusion of others has long been noted in the case of the sockeye 
and king salmon. The choice on the part of the latter seems to be 
based mainly on the volume, only stragglers of this species entering 
the smaller streams like the Naha and Yes rivers. The larger streams, 
such as the Stikine and Unuk, carry large quantities of silt and 
thereby form extensive nmd flats, which, with the drift carried on 
the strong currents, make fishing difficult. For this reason no ade- 
quate idea of the number of king salmon entering these streams has 
been obtained. The only small stream in the region near Loring 
which they are known to frequent, one tributary to Carroll Inlet, has 
not been examined. They are commonly thought to have in Alaska 
a predilection for streams of glacial origin, but all large rivers of this 
section have some glacial water. 

The sockeye is recognized as exclusively a frequenter of streams 
with tributary lakes. The only suggestion adverse to this is a report 
by Mr. Fred Patching, superintendent of the Fortmann Hatchery, 
regarding a small stream in the vicinity of Wrangell, which Mr. Patch- 
ing believes to have no lake water. The sockeyes are said to spawn 
in a somewhat expanded portion of the stream, but this expanse has 
not the character of a lake. As a converse proposition, not all lake 
outlets, even of apparently suitable character, attract the sockeye. 
The Anan stream, tributary to Bradfield Canal, seems to be perfectly 
adapted to all the sockeye's requirements, but no recognized run 
enters it. 

The dog salmon apparently recognizes some distinctions, though it 
is much more generally distributed than the two above-mentioned 
species. For example, comparatively few of this cpecies enter the 
Naha or Yes rivers, whereas Karta River, on the opposite side of the 
strait, abounds with it. 

The coho is probably less particular in its requirements. The fry 
were found, without exception, in every stream and brook examined; 
even a tiny seepage rill entering Naha Bay which would become 
dry with the first week of fair summer weather contained its little 
school of coho fry. That some streams are profitably fished for cohos, 
whereas others apparently as suitable are found not productive, is 
probably due mainly to the stream character, this in the one case 
being such as to promote the schooling of the fish at the mouth of 
the stream, while in the other a greater length of estuary or greater 
volume permits immediate ascent. 

The humpback, like the coho, is found everywhere, and being 
exceedingly abundant is the more noticeable of the two. 

The evidence in the question as to the existence of a homing instinct 
in the salmon is still lacking in many points. The exposition by 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 77 

H. S. Davis in the Pacific Fisherman (vol. i, no. 6, July, 1903, p. 6 
and 7) summarizes the data as known up to that time. The facts 
advanced as evidence of the existence of such instinct are: (1) Dis- 
tinctive and characteristic runs in various streams; (2) return of 
niarke4 salmon to the stream in which liberated; (3) introduction 
into streams not previously frequented. 

"introduction into streams NOT PREVIOUSLY FREQUENTED." 

On this subject little material data beyond Davis's citations is at 
hand. There is no report that runs have been established in either 
Papermill Creek or Chinook River'. The release of fry in the Chinook 
River has been continuous since 1898, with no definite result. The 
presence of salmon in abundance in Tomales Bay has been reported, 
but seems to be only a result of their general abundance throughout 
the streams of northern California, and can not be credited to the 
plants in Papermill Creek. The introduction of Pacific salmon into 
streams of the eastern United States or of Europe seems not yet to 
have been successful. Until complete knowledge of the environ- 
mental requisites of the different species is obtained, the failure to 
establish them in these locations can not be accounted for'. 

The station at Baird, Cal., was opened in 1872 for the collection 
of salmon eggs for shipment to other streams, mainly in order to 
introduce the species into the waters of the Atlantic coast. The 
experiment was conducted on a scale unprecedented. The first 
plant was of about 6,000 fiiigerlings in the Susquehanna at Har- 
risburg in March, 1873. During the next three years over 640,000 
were planted in the Great Lakes system, over 3,250,000 in Atlantic 
coast streams, over 1,000,000 in tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico, 
principally in the Mississippi and its branches, and several hundred 
thousand were scattered about in the lakes of Minnesota, Colorado, 
and Utah. To these plants 18,250,000 fry were added in the next 
five years. The last large plant was made in 1881, at which 
time the result had become less hopeful and the demand for 
more attention to the California home waters more urgent. This 
attempt at acclimatization was based entirely on the fact that the 
salmon is known to leave the cold ocean water and enter the warm 
rivers for spawning. The Sacramento rises to a temperature of over 
80 and the Columbia reaches almost the same. Conditions appeared 
to be practically equivalent on the opposite coast, so far as tempera- 
ture, volume, length, source, and nature of the rivers, the presence 
of food and enemies, etc., are concerned. But the attempt was an 
absolute failure. 

The success recently attained in introducing both sockeyes and 
king salmon into the streams of New Zealand should supply valuable 



78 SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 

data not only on the life history of these species but especially on 
the physical requisites for practical work. The returning adults in 
these instances reached only the streams in which the fry had been 
placed, the two species not commingling. It is yet too early to draw 
positive conclusions regarding the relative influence of the two factors, 
natural suitability of the different streams, and a homing instinct. 

That any given stream within the natural range of a species is not 
inhabited would seem to indicate its natural unsuitability. Whether 
the example of the Chinook River, where the king salmon once 
placed in the current of the river seems to find the locality at least 
endurable, can stand as a refutation .remains yet to be proved. That 
it is not naturally populated by this species has been explained by 
the peculiar nature of its location and the general character of the 
stream and its bed. At least one of the principal guides directing 
the salmon to their spawning grounds seems to be the current. That 
the fish do not enter the Chinook River by choice is thought to be 
due to the lack of any sensible current from that stream reaching 
into the path followed by the schools in their movement from the 
ocean into the Columbia River. Temperatures have not been 
recorded. This same apparent influence of the current has been 
noted in many instances. For example, in the Columbia, salmon 
pass the Willamette during the summer season of flood, when the 
tributary river has become back water, but enter it before and after 
that season when the current is perceptible. At the Quesnel Dam in 
the Fraser system sockeyes died fighting the swift current of the race, 
while ignoring the feeble flow from the original fishway. 

"return of MARKED SALMON." 

The experiment in which the marked Naha fry subsequently 
appeared as adults at Yes Bay, as noted above, must be again men- 
tioned. This result is a direct refutation of the homing theory. The 
relative numbers at Yes Bay and the Naha are the more reinarkable 
for the reason that no Naha fish are taken except for breeding, hence 
almost all the individuals returning to that stream would be discov- 
ered, while at Yes Bay many may have been taken in the cannery 
seines and the record lost. In all experiments based on marking 
young fish by various iiuitilations the possibility of regeneration 
of the lost parts must be fully taken into consideration. In this 
experiment it is believed the fins were cut nmch closer than in 
the laboratory experiments. 

"distinctive AND CHARACTERISTIC RUNS." 

Upon this point some more or less conclusive facts have been deter- 
mined. The group of streams fished by the Loring Cannery were 
studied in 1 903 and 1 904, careful counts and measurements of a nuin- 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 79 

ber of fish from each locahty being taken at the receiving scows in 
order to ehniinate as far as possible any doubt regarding the region 
to which the fish belonged. 

The localities are rather widely distributed. The most northerly 
and most distant from the ocean is Yes Bay, on the upper arm of 
Behm Canal. Opposite the mouth of this arm, and across Clarence 
Strait, is Karta Bay at the head of Kasaan Bay. The other locali- 
ties are near the opening of Clarence Strait into Dixon Entrance; on 
the west side, Kegan and Nowiskay, tributary to Moira Sound, and 
Dolomi just above it; on the east side, Boca de Quadra, opening into 
Revillagigedo Channel; Tamgas, on Annette Island, about midway 
between Moira Sound and Boca de Quadra, and Port Chester, just 
above Tamgas, off Nichols Passage. 

To make these data of decisive value it remains to be proved that 
fish taken in the receiving bay of a given stream are all destined, if 
not interfered with, to enter that stream for spawning. It has been 
suggested that fish may congregate in a given bay for a time and, 
subsequently scattering, travel to distant streams to spawn. To test 
this, Rutter in 1903 tagged several hundred fish and released them in 
Karluk Bay or in the lagoon. But one of these was ever reported in 
another basin; most of them were retaken in the seines working in 
the bay at that time. If not taken the same day, they were seldom 
found, though occasionally a straggler was discovered several days 
after its release, the latest nine days after tagging. While not at all 
definite, these results point to the probability that few, if any, fish 
reach another river after appearing at the mouth of one. (See also 
p. 106.) 

In some instances, in closely adjacent basins, the fishermen in their 
effort to meet the incoming schools reach the neutral grounds between ; 
for example, at Yes Bay some crews fish Behm Canal and so, perhaps, 
interrupt schools bound for the Unuk River; Moira Sound fishermen 
sometimes fish outside the respective arms. But this does not often 
occur. In general, the figures from a given basin are believed to rep- 
resent fairly well the fish traveling at the time for that particular 
stream. 

Variations in weights and measurements.— In this inquiry weights 
were taken on a small spring balance read to the nearest quarter 
pound. The lengths were taken with a steel tape, the fish lying on 
a flat table. The points chosen, with the view of later making com- 
parative measurements on spawned fish, were the center of the 
eye and the extremity of the last caudal vertebra. The reading was 
made to the nearest half centimeter. The depth was taken at the 
front of the rayed dorsal by means of dividers, which were read from 
a scale to millimeters. As all the measurements with the exception 
of the Port Chester and Tamgas figures were made by the writer, the 
10731—07 G 



80 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 



personal factor is well guarded against. The exceptions mentioned 
are measurements made by Fassett after careful observation, and 
are believed to be closely comparable with the rest. The averages 
are given in the following table : 

Table 2. — Average Weights and Measurements ok Sockeye Salmon from 

Different Localities. 



Locality and year. 



Yes Bay, 1903 

1904 

1905 

Karta Bay, 1903.. 

1904.. 
Quadra, 1903 

1904 

Kegan, 1903 

1904 

Nowlskay, 1903... 
1904... 

Dolomi, 1903 

1904 

Port Chester, 1904. 

Tamgas, 1904 . . 





Number examined. Length. 


Weight. 


Date of ex- 


















amination. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


age of 
total. 


Male. 


Female. 










mm. 


mm. 


mm. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


July 16-20.. 


162 


135 


297 


555.3 


544.4 


549.8 


8.294 


7.407 


Aug. 16-21. 


503 


504 


1,007 


524.7 


523. 


523.8 


7.07 


6.547 


July 26 to 


339 


353 


692 


532.1 


530.0 


531.0 


8.158 


7.559 


Aug. 14. 


















July 1, 23- 

20. 
July 1-6.... 


208 


213 


421 


542. 6 


536.4 


539.5 


7.088 


6. 418 


518 


507 


1,025 


537.7 


524.1 


531.0 


6. 778 


5.947 


July 30 to 


267 


236 


503 


531.6 


536.8 


534.2 


7.087 


6. 843 


Aug. 5. 


















Aug. 24-29 . 


503 


509 


1,012 


512. 1 


511.5 


511.8 


6.207 


5.813 


Aug. 14 


56 


44 


100 


490. 3 


494.8 


495. 5 


5.826 


5.454 


July 24-29.. 


509 


507 


1,016 


515.6 


517.2 


516.4 


6.195 


5.835 


Aug. 17-19 . 


93 


107 


200 


528.0 


519.3 


523.6 


6.924 


6.222 


July 14 to 


512 


509 


1,021 


513.3 


500.1 


506.8 


6.224 


5.379 


Aug. 31. 


















Aug. 21-23 . 


122 


181 


303 


488.3 


482.7 


485. 5 


5. 436 


4.874 


Aug. 4-11 . . 


505 


506 


1,011 


470.0 


471.2 


470.7 


4.508 


4.230 


Aug. 20 and 

23. 
Aug. 19-23 . 


150 


155 


305 


498.1 


486.2 


492.0 


4.9.32 


4.274 


528 


512 


1,040 


406. 2 


463. 


465. 


3. 934 


3.625 




6.377 
6.965 

6.019 

5.64 

6.016 

6.523 

5.803 

5. 155 
4.369 
4.597 



Locality and year. 



Yes Bay, 1903 

1904 

1905 

Karta Bay, 1903 . . 
1904 . . 

Quadra, 1903 

1904 

Kegan, 1903 

1904 

Nowiskay, 1903... 
1904... 

Dolomi, 1903 

1904 

Port Chester, 1904 
Tamgas, 1904 



Depth. 



Date of examina- 
tion. 



July 16-20 

Aug. 16-21 

July 26 to Aug. 14, 

July 1,23-26 

July 1-6 

July 30 to Aug. 5 . 

Aug. 24-29 

Aug. 14 

July 24-29 

Aug. 17-19 

July 14 to Aug. 31 

Aug. 21-23 

Aug. 4-11 

Aug. 20 and 23... 
Aug. 19-23 



mm. 
157.8 
150.6 
158.0 
144.1 
146.7 
144.6 
138.5 
134.1 
141.4 
141.4 
139.7 
124.7 
120.7 
126.4 
114.4 



Female. 



mm. 
148.4 
140.3 
149.6 
135.1 
136.9 
140.0 
132.9 
127.6 
135.6 
132.3 
130.0 
117.7 
115.8 
117.0 
109.7 



Average 
of total. 



mvi. 
1.53. 1 
145.9 
154.0 
139.6 
141.8 
142.3 

135. 6 
130.8 
138.5 

136. 8 
134.9 
121.2 
118.2 
121.6 
112.6 



Ratio of depth to length. 



Male. Female. Aver?f« 



28+ 

28+ 

29+ 

26+ 

27+ 

27 

27+ 

27 

27+ 

26+ 

27+ 

25+ 

25+ 

25+ 

24+ 



27+ 

27- 

28+ 

25+ 

26+ 

26 

26- 

26 

26+ 

25+ 

26- 

24+ 

24+ 

24 

23+ 



28- 

28+ 

29 

26- 

26+ 

26+ 

27- 

26+ 

27- 

26+ 

27- 

25- 

25 

25- 

24+ 



Of 100 sockeyes, equally divided as to sex, weighed at Karta Bay 
August 2, 1904, the males averaged 7 pounds and the females 6. 
Males were very slightly in excess in number at the time. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



81 



Differences in Averages of the Sexes. 
[Except where the minus sign appears, the figures represent excess in average of the males.] 



Locality. 



Yes Bay.. , 

Karta Bay 
Quadra. . . 
Kegan 



Date. 


Length. 


Weight. 


Depth. 




mm. 


lb. 


mm. 


1903 


10.9 


0.887 


. 9.4 


1904 


1.7 


.523 


10.3 


1905 


2.1 


.599 


8.4 


1903 


6.2 


. 070 


9.0 


1904 


13.6 


.831 


9.8 


1903 


—5.2 


.244 


4.6 


1904 


.6 


.394 


5.6 


1903 


1.5 


.372 


6.5 


1904 


-1.6 


.360 


5.8 



Locality. 



Nowiskay . . 

Dolomi 

Port Chester 
Tamgas 



Date. 


Length. 


Weight. 




mm. 


lb. 


1903 


8.7 


0.708 


1904 


13.2 


.845 


1903 


5.6 


.562 


1904 


-1.2 


.278 


1904 


11.9 


.658 


1904 


2.6 


.309 



Depth. 



7.0 
4.9 
9.4 

4.7 



It will be noted that this table shows a smaller average size for 
the fish of 1904, except in one instance (Kegan) ; there the number 
obtained in 1903 was too small for accurate comparison. 

The variation in depth between the two sexes seems to be prac- 
ticallj constant, about 1 per cent of the measured length (which 
measurement is about three-fourths of the total length), or less than 
1 per cent of the total length. The dates at which the examinations 
were made do not alter this ratio, showing that ordinarily there is 
no great increase of the depth in the male while still in salt water, 
and that variations of proportionate depth, as shown in the different 
localities, are not an effect of secondary sex changes. In all instances 
the males are heavier, although in a few cases slightly shorter than 
the females. This difference in weight varies from 3.6 per cent in 
the case of one lot of Quadra fish to over 15 per cent in the case 
of the Nowiskay fish of 1904. The greater weight is attributable 
to the greater depth of the males, which exceeds the depth of the 
females by from 4 to over 7 per cent on the average. In these sex 
variations there seems to be no marked similarity in the two seasons 
for a given locality, the resemblance between different localities 
being greater in some cases than between different years in the same 
locality. In the few weights of Karta Bay fish taken in August, 1904, 
the difference in average of the two sexes is remarkable, amounting to 
over 16 per cent. This is probably due to the increased weight of the 
later running males. In all c{uestions involving weight, analysis 
should be made to see what increase is clue to mere increase of 
water in the tissues. 

The only spawned sockeyes weighed were at the Fortmann Hatchery. 
These were apparently a somewhat different fish from those of other 
localities, so no data as to the loss suffered during migration and 
spawning could be deduced. Seventy-two males averaging 539 mm. 
(std.) in length (480-605) averaged 7.4 pounds in weight, or con- 
siderably heavier than fresh fish of the same length from other 
localities. The combined average of orreen fish of similar lengths 



82 SALMON AND TEOUT IN ALASKA. 

from Yes and Karta bays is but 7.2 pounds. The 128 females 
measured show an average length (std.) of 532 mm. (465-570) and 
an average weight of 6 pounds. The combined average of Karta 
and Yes Bay females of similar length is about 6.3 pounds. 

The figures obtained are hardly sufficient to determine the change, 
if any, incident to the varying periods of the run. Nowiskay is the 
only locahty in which the measurements were carried through a 
considerable length of time. At this point, owing to the smallness 
of the early July run, the dates extended from July 14 to 22, and 
again to August 10, 12, -and 31. In summing up these lots as July 
fish and August fish it is observed that the average length of the 
July fish is greater. Over 79 per cent of the whole number, 235, 
measured in July, are over 500 mm. (std.) in length, whereas of the 
August fish, 277 in number, only 47 per cent exceed 500 mm. The 
same fact is noticeable in the fish of Karta Bay in 1903. Of 55 
measured the first of July nearly 62 per cent are 550 mm. (std.) or 
over, whereas of 153 measured the latter part of that month only 
45 per cent reach these lengths. These figures pertain only to the 
males, the females showing less variation. At other stations the 
daily distribution of sizes very closely resembles the totals, and a 
curve plotted for any one day would not vary materially from the 
curve for the total." 

The fish of Yes Bay are found to be the heaviest and also the 
deepest, those of Tamgas the lightest and relatively the most slender. 
The former are about twice the average weight of the latter, one- 
eighth longer (total), and one-seventh greater in proportionate depth. 
These are comparatively widely separated localities ; but the variation 
between more adjacent regions, as Boca de Quadra and Tamgas, 
while less than in the case of Yes Bay and Tamgas, is still marked. 
A yet more interesting instance is seen in the streams of Moira Sound 
and Dolomi. 

The average weight of fish from Nowiskay is nearly one-third 
greater than that of the Dolomi fish, and they are nearly one-sixth 
longer and of somewhat greater proportionate depth. These basins 
are immediately adjacent and this difference is always well recognized 
by the fishermen. It indicates one of three things: That the fish 
exercise some selective instinct in choosing their spawning stream; 
that they are practically limited in their feeding activity to a radius 
of less than 10 miles, or that the currents are such that the product of 
these two streams remain as separate schools in different areas. 



fl At Karlvik it is reported (Alexander, ms.) that the earliest-run sockeyes are small- 
est, av(!raging IG to the case when canned. As the season advances the size increases 
until 11 or 11| make a case; but again by the middle or latter part of August the size 
falls to about that of the beginning. This may hold in other localities, the earliest of 
the run passing unobserved by reason of the small number. 



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o 



<t- Q 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



83 



In table 3 are shown for the males the percentages in which each 
weight (to the nearest half ponnd) was fonnd in the respective lots. 
In diagram b are plotted the curves for each lot for 1904, the weights 
being marked off in the horizontal axis and the number of examples 
of each weight, as a percentage of the whole number weighed at a 
given locality, indicated on the verticals. 

Table 3. — Weights of Male Sockeyes, Shown as Percentages of the Total 
Number op Examples Examined from Each Locality. 



V/eight. 



IJ pounds. . 

2 pounds. .. 
2i pounds. . 

3 pounds . . . 
3\ pounds.. 

4 pounds. .. 
4| pounds. . 

5 pounds . . . 
5 J pounds. . 

6 pounds. .. 
6i pounds. . 

7 pounds. .. 
7J pounds.. 

8 pounds. .. 
8| pounds.. 

9 pounds. .. 
9^ pounds. . 

10 pounds. . 
lOJ pounds. 

11 pounds., 
llj pounds. 



Tam- 



2.1 

1.0 

1.1 

9.9 

28.3 

29.4 

14.0 

6.0 

4.0 

1.0 

1.0 

.4 



Port 
Dolomi. Ches- 
ter. 



1904 1903 1904 



0.2 

.4 

1.0 

1.0 

11.4 

30.2 

26.8 

12.4 

7.2 

5.0 

4.0 

1.2 

.2 



No. of specimens 

Average weight , lbs . 



528 
3.9 



505 
4.5 



0.8 
.8 
10.7 
8.2 
32.2 
12.4 
14.8 
5.0 
7.4 
6.6 



0.0 
4.0 
11.3 
20.6 
16.6 
10.6 
10.6 
0.6 
3.3 
9.0 
4.0 
1.1 



Nowis- 
kay. 



1904 1903 



0.2 
.8 
3.5 
7.3 
13.5 
12.7 
13.5 
11.7 
13.3 
11.3 
7.4 
3.5 
1.0 



150 
4.9 



512 
6.2+ 



Kggan. 
1904 1903 



2.1 

7.6 

4.3 

8.6 

15.2 

20.4 

20.4 

18.3 

2.1 

1.0 



1.8 
5.7 
9.0 
9.0 
8.0 
12.7 
15.5 
17.4 
10.2 
7.3 
1.8 
1.0 



5.4 
5.4 
10.8 
28.5 
25.0 
12.5 
5.4 
5.4 



509 
6.2- 



Quadra. ^t^** Yes 



1904 1903 1904 [ 1903 1904 1903 1905 



0.4 

1.0 

4.2 

11.0 

17.4 

25.6 

17.0 

8.2 

5.8 

6.0 

2.6 

.8 

.6 

.2 

.2 



1.6 

6.0 

20.8 

13.2 

14.4 



0.4 
2.9 
3.1 
5.2 
3.7 
8.0 
16.0 
,24.4 



10.9 22.0 
18.5 'l3.0 



56 503 
5.8 6.2+ 



264 
7.1 



518 
6.8- 



1.0 

1.9 

5.8 

5.8 

9.1 

9.6 

17.7 

18.2 

17.0 

6.3 

4.3 

2.4 

.5 



0.6 
2.2 
5.4 
12.0 
10.6 
13.2 
7.0 
7.6 
12.4 
11.4 
6.2 
4.2 



501 
7.0 



0.6 

2.4 

1.8 

1.8 

7.3 

11.5 

25.4 

18.2 

15.9 

9.1 

4.2 

.6 

.6 

.6 I 

165 
8.3 I 



0.3 

.6 

.6 

.9 

2.0 

4.7 

5.0 

11.7 

15.3 

18.2 

14.8 

13.9 

8.0 

3.2 

.3 

.3 

339 

8.2 



In table 4 are shown for the males the various lengths tabulated 
by percentages of the number of fish in the lots measured, in the 
same manner as in table 3 to show the weights. In diagram c are 
plotted the curves for each lot measured in 1904; in diagram d the 
curves for the lots of 1903 and 1905. Table 4a show^s in the same 
manner the lengths of female sockeyes. 



84 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



Table 4. 



-Lengths of Male Sockeyes, Shown as Percentages op the Total 
Number op Examples Examined in Each Locality. 



Standard lengths. 


Tam- 
gas. 


Dolomi. 


Port 
Ches- 
ter. 


Nowis- 
kay. 


Quadra. 


Kegan. 


Y 


PS Bay. 


Karta 
Bay. 




1904 

0.2 
.5 

1.0 
.3 
.5 
.3 
.2 
.3 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 1905 


1904 


1903 


320 mm 
















330 mm 


0.2 

.2 












0.8 














340 mm 
























350 mm 
























360 mm . . 


.2 

".'2 

.4 

.4 

.4 

1.0 

4.8 

7.8 

14.8 

16.4 

16.8 

12.2 

7.6 

3.8 

5.0 

3.0 

3.0 

1.4 

.8 

.4 














1 










370 mm 


0.8 




















380 mm 











1 








390 ram .... 


.8 










■ ! 










400 mm 
















0.3 








.2 

l!7 

3.8 

10.0 

11.9 

16.6 

17.5 

11.2 

7.3 

5.0 

3.8 

3.4 

1.3 

1.1 

.5 

.5 


.8 


0.0 


0.2 






•4 












420 mm 












.3 
.3 
.3 

.9 

h -3 

.9 

3.0 

3.2 

7.1 

7.1 

11.5 

11.5 

14.8 

14.0 

13.3 

8.6 

1.5 

.6 












.4 

.8 

1.1 

4.1 

7.4 

9.2 

9.6 

9.2 

8.0 

8.7 

11.0 

10.4 

10.0 

6.8 

1.6 

1.0 








1.2 
.6 
2.6 
5.2 
7.6 
6.0 
5.1 
5.1 
8.4 
12.1 
12.0 
14.7 
11.4 
5.6 
1.6 
1.6 






0.2 

".'9' 
2.1 
2.0 
3.3 
3.3 
3.1 
2.0 
3.5 
11.4 
18.5 
21.6 
14.9 






2.5 
7.5 
9.0 
9.0 
22.0 
8.0 
9.0 
7.5 
6.5 
9.0 
6.0 
1.7 


3.4 
6.9 
8.9 
8.9 
13.8 
12.5 
6.1 
3.4 
6.1 
8.2 
6.2 
9.7 
3.4 
1.3 
.6 


'i.'7" 

5.4 
5.4 
5.4 
4.3 
11.8 
19.2 
18.1 
15.0 
10.7 
3.2 


0.2 

1.0 

1.6 

4.0 

8.0 

12.6 

17.4 

16.6 

11.2 

7.8 

5.4 

4.6 

4.4 

3.6 

1.4 

.2 

.2 

.2 


'.'4' 
.8 
3.6 
5.2 
11.1 
10.0 
11.8 
7.0 
10.8 
13.0 
8.1 
8.9 
5.0 
2.0 
.8 


3.6 0.4 


o.'e' 

1.2 

1.8 

1.8 

3.7 

0.2 

9.4 

16.2 

25.6 

16.8 

10.6 

4.4 

1.8 

.6 


0.5 


450 mm 


1.8 
7.1 
7.1 


.6 
1.8 
4 




460 mm 


1.0 




1.4 


480 mm . . 


14.3 7.6 
14.3 ;i2.6 
10.1 11.4 
10.7 9.4 
14.3 4.8 
1.8 5.4 
5.3 ; 7.4 
1.8 |12.0 
1.8 9.8 


2.9 


490 mm 


3.8 


500 mm 


4.3 


510 mm 


5 3 


520 mm 


5.8 


530 mm 


9.1 


540 mm . . 


12.2 


550 mm 


13.0 


560 mm 


17.0 


570 mm 




8.4 

3.0 

1.6 

.4 


8.5 1 12.7 


580 mm 


.2 






3.5 ; 6.7 


590 mm 






.6 
.2 
.2 


2.9 


600 mm . . ... 
















1.9 


610 mm 
















1.0 








1 














No. of specimens 

Average length , mm . 


528 
466 


504 
470 


122 

488 


146 
498 


512 
513 


93 

528 


502 

512 


207 
531 


509 
510 


56 
496 


502 
525 


162 
555 


338 
532 


518 
538 


208 
543 



Table 4a. — Lengths op Female Sockeyes, Shown as Percentages op the 
Total Number op Examples Examined for Each Locality. 



Standard lengths. 


Tam- 
gas. 


Dol 


omi. 


Port 
Ches- 
ter. 


Nowis- 
kay. 


Quadra. 


Kegan. 


Yes 


Bay. 


Kart.i 
Bay. 






1904 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1905 


380 mm 


0.2 




























390 mm 














1 












400 mm 


2 

L9 

4.9 

11.7 

20.0 

20.7 

16.0 

8.8 

4.3 

2.7 

4.3 

2.9 

1.1 


0.4 

.0 

1.0 

5.0 

(i.8 

13.2 

17.0 

20.2 

14.4 

8.0 

5.8 

3.0 

2.2 

1.8 

.6 

.4 












1 

























i 














420 mm 


0.0 

1.1 

2. 2 

b.Q 

11.1 

20.0 

20.5 

18.0 

0.0 

0.5 

3.8 

3.8 

.5 

.5 


0.0 
2.0 
5.2 
9.7 
13.0 
11.0 
13.0 
9.7 
4.6 
5.8 
8.5 
9.0 
5.8 
1.2 
.6 










0.2 
.4 
1.0 
1.7 
2.3 
3.1 
3.5 
3.1 
0.9 
14.2 
18.5 
19. 5 
R.9 

11 
.2 














430 mm 


1.1 

2.9 

4.0 

7.4 

0.0 

8.4 

7.2 

10.0 

14.9 

15.0 

12.7 

4.8 

3.1 

.8 

.2 














0.2 

.2 

1.0 

.8 

.8 

1.1 

1.9 

6.7 

13.4 

21.9 

21.5 

12.2 

11.6 

2.7 

.4 














7.0 
9.0 
15.9 
15.9 
11.5 
4.5 
4.5 
7.0 
13. 6 
7.0 
2.3 
2.3 


0.4 
1.4 
2.0 
4.8 
7.0 
5.0 
4.6 
4.8 
11.6 
17.4 
18.2 
14.2 
6.6 
2.2 
.6 


0.7" 

'9.'6' 
19.3 
23.7 
22.2 
12.1 
10.0 
1.5 
.7 








1.0 
2.8 
3.7 
1.0 
2.8 
7.5 
10.0 
24.3 
17.7 
14.0 
.5.6 
3.7 


0.6 
2.0 
5.4 
11.4 
14.2 
10. 1 
11.0 
7.6 
7. 2 
7.0 
8.0 
5.6 
2.4 
1.2 
.2 
.2 


0.4 

.8 

1.2 

2.0 

2.5 

5.1 

5. 5 

5.1 

14. (i 

21.9 

18.2 

13.8 

5.1 

1.0 

1.6 


0.5 

zi? 

1.4 
3.3 
4.2 
8.4 
17.8 
27.2 
19.2 
11.2 
3.0 
1.0 




460 mm 




470 mm 


1.4 


480 mm . . . 


1.4 


490 mm 


2.8 


500 mm . . . 


4.5 


510 mm 


9.3 




15.6 


530 mm 


23. 5 




19.0 


.5.50 mm 


.2 


15.3 


560 mm 


0.2 


570 mm . . 








1.7 


580 mm 




.2 


.5 






590 mm 
















600 mm 








































230 
537 


507 
517 






135 
544 


"506 
524 


213 
536 




No. of specimens 

Average length, mm. 


512 
464 


500 
471 


ISl 
483 


154 

480 


509 
519 


107 
500 


508 
512 


44 
495 


504 
523 


353 
530 




O < 

en ° 

X UJ 

1_ UJ 



UJ 



CD 



UJ 



1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


: . Tl — T.» 




X *^ 




* 








. - 












-!*-< « ' 










__ __ _ _ 






-.r^lJ' -,r-!-4-C — «-+- 




-.^Li: r^Hj-'iai X 




_jij'^ ^"^ ^ 2' 




n'^ .• c"*^ n,' 




,i" .<• o* .J-.^'' 




hJ^ 0°,ylt^ _ 




l-!^ r.°^1^^ 


5:: 


it,. ^^^ X 


^_ ^ _^^^ljC3:_ 


__ ^iT.^.Ll.^^ . . 


^z - ~-<^^^ 


~ ' ^i-ri o 


: • - ^^^^ 


4^' 1 O 


X ^-,jJ^_ III - -,j_ 


^J^X ' o 


•^ „ ^^t^- _ ,»i^lt 




11 , . «•• _-,^' - - 




^ "'^u^- ^ !•» 


--+\>- - g,0 ;- 


_^^ljih^1: ► 




"'•IH,- ^- 


X ^i^ 4_ " 


"'Uh^ -.- - 


1^- . ^< X 


"I __ X -- --. '•j'li ' 


V^o"^ ' 


" * • *^ 


o ' 1 




•. ° T X 




*'°^ ^x X 




_ "O., t 






i' _ ± Gl 


°°i- **J 




: i,. ?qj> T 




l« H'l^' 




-■ X > 'H'L 




-■>, ! <»- "(>•• 


T 


STl o° •, 




^., o° V X 




o° !. IT 




1^)' ■■ ' • '' ^- 




±2t 4X"- *-• ' 




^- ^ X X X *. 












X : ••,; ",. ■ » 




it X^ _ ^> 1 x V 








^ V 




rf >< m m 












' ' 1 > ' - a m 








^ ° a J "-- "I '1 




I^ _4_ <=i t -^i^ I - 




^<^o ■ -- 




1 --e. "i^ rt 








_^ wvt^ •>!:- -W 








it X ^x z 




-h ^ oH^ -« 


-^ 


' O fc . . X- 




m 1^ 




^ --^ _^ -. ^= 




V- 








it ts 












i fit- 




_1 ? 


1 


• X J*- 




1 V 




-j n>c, 




V 




n 




X 


~ 


■> 




1 -t. 
























It 




T 't 


- 




x 




- -4- 




T + 








1 1 




1 , 




_i 




" " 14" ' " ' ' "Ji " " " "JJ 


W w 



SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 



85 



Table 5 shows the depths of the males tabulated in the same 
manner as the lengths and weights, showing these measurements in 
percentages of the total number of fish in each lot measured. Dia- 
gram E presents the same information for 1904 shown by curves. 

Table 5. — Depths op Male Sockeyes, Shown as Percentages op the Total 
Number op Examples Examined for Each Locality. 



Bepth. 


Tam- 
gas. 


Dolomi. 


Port 
Ches- 
ter. 


Quadra. 


Nowis- 
kay. 


Kegan. 


Karta 
Bay. 


Yes Bay. 




1904 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1904 


1903 


1905 




0.0 

.6 

1.0 

1.2 

2.0 

7.7 

1G.-4 

24.0 

19.2 

13.2 

7.6 

3.4 

2.0 

.6 








"^ 


























j 












. 






90 mm 


0.4 

.4 

.6 

.8 

6.1 

19.0 

26.3 

22.7 

12.5 

7.0 

2.8 

1.4 

.2 

•2 






1 
























, 1 


















100 mm 


0.8 
4.0 
4.0 
7.4 
22.0 
18.0 
13.0 
14.0 
0.5 
4.8 
4.0 
.8 


2.6 
1.3 
7.3 
10.6 
15.3 
11.3 
1,5.3 
8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
.2 


1 












1 








0.2 

.2 

.6 

.4 

5.2 

13.4 

19.6 

25.2 

16.4 

9.2 

5.0 

4.0 

1.0 




















110 mm 


0.4 

2.9 
10.6 
19.9 
17.0 
20.1 
13.0 
8.7 
0.0 
2.3 


0.4 
.8 
2.3 
6.5 
11.2 
14.9 
16.0 
1.5.8 
17.0 
8.3 
6.0 
1.0 






1.8 

16.' 7' 
5.3 
8.9 
36.0 
18.0 
8.9 
8.9 




I 








"3.'2" 
5.4 
8.6 
10.8 
14.0 
16. 1 
24.9 
13.0 
3.2 


0.4 
2.5 
5.5 
10.7 
13.5 
12. 3 
15.1 
20.6 
11.9 
5.3 
2.5 


"i."i' 

1.3 
4.0 
4.8 
11.7 
14.0 
28.3 
20.0 
10.6 
3.1 
.6. 


0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
7.7 
8.2 
11.0 
24.0 
17.3 
15.4 

3^3 
1.9 








120 mm 

125 miii 




1.4 
2.4 
5.8 
15.4 
13.8 
16.4 
11.6 
14.6 
9.6 
6.8 
2.6 


'i."2' 

1.8 

6.0 

12.8 

20.0 

25.6 

17.2 

10.0 

4.9 

.6 

.6 


0.3 


130 mm 


•6 




1.8 




2.3 




4.7 


150 mm 


7.4 




. 2 


14.5 


160 mm . 


20.9 












21.8 




] 






13 












.2 










7 4 


180 mm 
























4.1 


185 mm 


























.6 
















I12" 
140- 








518 
147- 




^503~ 

151- 




No. of specimens 

Average depth, mm. 


528 
114+ 


505 
121 


122 
125- 


150 

126+ 


503 

138+ 


265 
145- 


93 
140- 


509 

141 + 


56 
134 


208 

144+ 


164 
159 


339 

158 



A close correspondence will be seen in all the curves for Dolomi and 
Tamgas." The greatest number of individuals in each are 4-pound 
fish. The balance of the average weights of the two lots is destroyed 
by the varying numbers under and over this maximum. The weight 
curve, however, for Dolomi is very similar to that for Tamgas, though 
it occupies a place about 0.5 pound higher in the scale, the average 
weight for Dolomi being 4.5 pounds as compared with 3.9 pounds. 
An examination of the length curves (diagram e) also shows a very 
close parallel between these two localities, w:hile the difference between 
the curves for depths (diagram f) will explain the greater weight of 
the Dolomi examples, the depth curve for Dolomi standing about 5 
mm. higher on the scale than that for Tamgas. Comparing the two 
lots, it is shown that while the average length is about the same for 
each locality, and the number of examples of any given length is 
about the same for each, the Dolomi fish average about 5 mm. greater 
in depth and therewith 0.5 pound greater in weight. These two 
localities seem to be set off clearly from all others examined. 



a In the following discussion of the tabular data reference is to the males only 
unless otherwise specified. 



86 SALMON AND TROUT TN ALASKA, 

The Dolonii fish of 1903, only 200 in number, were much heavier 
than those of 1904, but in this they but follow the rule jexhibi ted by 
other localities, in almost all of which the 1904 fish are lighter than 
those of the previous year. It will be noted that in 1904 the examina- 
tion of Dolomi fish preceded that of Tamgas fish by about two weeks. 
The latter were reported to be quite immature sexually, apparently 
more so than the Dolomi fish of the earlier date. This may account 
in a measure for their slenderness. In both these localities running 
small fish, two type forms are noted more distinctly than in streams 
carrying the larger fish, viz, the slender terete form, usually dark, with 
scales more or less embedded, but not showing the other marks of sex 
maturity; and the deeper, more compressed form, with scales dis- 
tinct and brightly colored. Fassett noted at Tamgas that one or the 
other of these forms predominated on different days, indicating a 
difference in schools. The dark fish may be fish which have been 
feeding in the brackish water for some time. 

The fish of Karta and Yes bays, the heaviest of all, in 1904 approached 
one another closely in average weight, varying only 0.3 pound. Exami- 
nation of the curves for weight, however, shows great difl'erence. 
The curve for Karta Bay is comparatively simple, rising to over 24 
per cent on 7 pounds, extremes falling between 3.5 and 9.5 pounds and 
showing little tendency to indicate a double node or maximum, while 
Yes Bay shows 2 maxima, one on 6 pounds and one on 8 pounds, with 
small numbers on 7 and 7.5 ; in addition the upper extreme rises to 10.5 
pounds. The length curves exhibit this variance increased. In this 
the line for Karta, showing some tendency to form a double node, 
rises on the same maxima with Yes Bay, 490 mm. for the lower, and 
550 mm. for the upper, but in the case of Yes Bay the percentages 
on each are about equal (12 per cent), while for Karta they are, respec- 
tively, 3 + and 21 .5 per cent. This shows that the relatively short fish 
are found in much greater number among the Yes Bay examples, 
reducing the total average length (std.) in this locality to 525 mm. 
as against 538 at Karta, in the face of a slightly higher average weight 
for Yes Bay. Reference to the depth curve again offers the explana- 
tion. The two length types of Yes Bay cause the depth curve for that 
locality to be somewhat truncated, rising to about equal height (14 to 
16 per cent) on 140, 150, 160 mm. and reaching an extreme of 180 mm. 
This indicates the prevalence of short deep fish in Yes Bay and long 
slender fish in Karta Bay. 

In this year the Karta fish were examined about six weeks earlier 
than those of Yes Bay. They were noted as nearly all bright, but 
some were of advanced maturity, with the usual changed form. The 
Yes Bay fish were noted as being of "advanced" maturity in out- 
ward ap])earance, and it was said they were so from the beginning of 
the run. The catches made in Behm Canal averaged smaller fish and 



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SALMON AND TTtOTTt TN ALASKA. 87 

brit!:hter. The fishermen thought these were ''Umik River fish." 
Wliether regarded as fish traveUng to another basin or as a hiter run 
not yet ready to enter the bay, these smaller fish account for the 
abundance of 6-pound fish and the double node in the curve. In 
1903, the fish of these two localities, examined at approximately the 
same time, difi"ered much more in averages, the Yes Bay fish exceed- 
ing those of Karta Bay by more than 1 pound in weight, by 12 mm. in 
length, and about 15 mm. in depth. In neither is there an indication 
of more than one type. The curves for length, weight, and depth show 
a single maxinuim, that for length in both localities on 560 mm., for 
weight on 7.5 and 8 pounds, respectively, for Karta and Yes bays, and 
for depth on 145 and 160 mm. Over 25 per cent of the Yes Bay fish 
reach the maximum, while of the Karta fish less than 20 per cent are 
of maximum weight and length and 24 per cent are of maximum 
depth. This indicates, again, that increased weight is largely due to 
increased depth. In condition the Karta fish of this year were noted 
as being quite as- much, if not more, advanced than the Yes Bay. 
This applies rather to the last lot of 153, examined July 23 to 26, in 
which tlie shorter fish predominated, only 45 per cent being over 550 
mm. in length, while of the first lot of 55, examined Jul}^ 1, 62 per 
cent were of that length. In the two lots from Yes Bay the curve for 
that of 1903, taken earliest — about a month earlier than the 1904 
lot — is much more like the curves for Karta than like that of Yes 
Bay for 1904, rising to over 25 per cent on 560 mm., with extremes 
between 480 and 610. In 1905 the values are more distributed, 
varying between 10 and 15 per cent from 520 to 570 mm., with 
extremes between 420 and 590. The average lengths, respectively, of 
the 1903 and 1905 examples are 555 and 532 mm., the average depths 
approximating 158 mm. in both cases, while the weights are 8.3 and 
8.2 pounds. This indicates that the fish of 1905 were more of the deep 
form, while those of 1903 were rather long and comparatively 
slender. These 1903 fish were from the early part of the run, those 
of 1905 some weeks later, giving another example of the long slen- 
der type form in the early run. On the' whole, it seems that Yes Bay 
fish may be said to be deeper than the Karta fish of corresponding 
maturity, and that the early fish of both localities are of less depth 
and weight for corresponding length than later fish. 

Quadra and the Moira Sound streams, Kegan and Nowiskay, show 
an almost exactly equal average weight in the fish examined in 1904, 
as well as close similarity in the averages of length and depth. Inspec- 
tion of the curves, however, shows this similarity to be factitious. 
The Quadra fish are a symmetrical group, while the Moira Sound fish 
are, like Yes Bay, composite, apparently made of a short deep type, 
and another correspondingly longer and more slender. 



88 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA,' 

In Quadra fish taken in 1903, about one month earher than the 
1904 lot, the length curve shows much variation (see.iJiagram g). 
The average length is nearly 20 mm. greater than in 1904, and the 
curve zigzags between 500 and 570 mm. across the 10 per cent line, 
while in 1904 it shows a single rise to about 17 per cent on 500 and 
510 mm. The difference in average length, weight, and depth of 
Quadra fish in the two seasons of 1903 and 1904 is very close to that 
of Yes Bay fish for the same years. The curves, however, are quite 
unlike, that of Quadra for 1903 being compound, while that for Yes 
Bay is simple. It was noted that the Quadra fish of 1903, though 
examined later than those of Yes and Karta bays, were less developed 
sexually. In almost all cases the curves for the females, though quite 
similar in general form, exhibit less complexity than the curves for the 
males. (See tables 4 and 4a, p. 84.) In no case is the curve of such 
a character as clearly to indicate fish of difl^erent ages, though it is 
possible that such curves as that for Yes Bay in 1904 may be so 
accounted for. The maxima in this case, separated by 60 mm. (80 
total length) and 2 pounds, would seem to be about what might be 
expected for the difference between a 3-year and a 4-year fish. In 
the females the maxima of length are separated by the same interval 
and the much lower percentage of the lower maximum accords with 
what is known of the development of the king salmon in captivity, 
in which the males exhibit much the greater precocity. 

Of the occurrence of the grilse form, or Arctic salmon, we know 
little, for the reason that many doubtless pass the meshes of the nets, 
and many are unreported by the fishermen, since they are not taken 
as "counts." At Quadra, of the sockeyes delivered at the scow 
about 1 in 300 were grilse. This is, perhaps, not far from the average 
ratio in the Loring district. They were not noted in unusual number 
at Dolomi. The Moira Sound fish examined in 1903 are too few to 
be of any value in the present comparisons. 

The increase of relative depth in the later fish may indicate only 
the change incident to sex maturation. It carries with it, however, 
a corresponding increase in weight. If it is not a typical form, but 
merely a sex character, then the early run ascends the stream with a 
smaller amount of tissue deposit than later runs, else they do not 
first enter the bay for the purpose of ascending the stream, but 
return again, if not hindered, to the feeding grounds. 

Such observations as could be made in opening the fish for deter- 
mination of sex did not indicate that the difference in sex maturity 
of the different parts (seasons) of the run are material until after the 
main body has arrived. The late arrivals — the last week or so of 
the regular run and belated sections — do show marked advance of 
sex maturity. It is probable that careful measurements would 
show a gradual increase in relative maturity, but not proportionate 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



89 



to the difference in time at which the (hfferent schools arrive at the 
breeding stream. 

Variations in counts. — For a further test of the similarity of fishes 
from a given basin, counts were made of the dorsal and anal fui rays, 
the branchiostegal rays, and of the tubes of the lateral line and 
number of longitudinal rows of scales. These various counts are tabu- 
lated in the same manner as the measurements, except that sexes 
are not differentiated, percentages being used instead of the number 
of examples in order to make comparable the results for the different 
sized k)ts that were obtained. In the fin-ray counts the totals of 
rudimentary and branched rays are used, but the terminal half ray, 
which varies greatly in development, is in all cases omitted. 

In table 6, showing the counts for dorsal rays, the similarity of 
the two years for each of the various localities is striking; Yes Bay, 
Karta, and Quadra exhibit the maximum on 15 rays, while Dolomi 
and the two Moira Sound points give it to the next lower number, 
or 14 rays; 12 and 17 are the extremes. The averages differ very 
slightly; Karife Bay is highest with 14.7 and Nowiskay lowest with 
14.3. It is noteworthy that these two localities were examined in 
sequence in 1904, and the field notes call attention to the exact identity 
of method in recording the fin counts. 

Table 6. — Dorsal Fin-Ray Count. 



Locality. 


Date. 


Number 
exam- 
ined. 


Average 
number 
of rays. 


Percentage of fish with specified numbers 
.of rays— 




12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 




1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 


512 
420 
509 
300 
512 
500 
511 
100 
511 
200 
513 
100 


14.7 
14.8 
14.5 
14.6 
14.5 
14.5 
14.4 
14.4 
14.4 
14.4 
14.3 
14.3 


"6.'2" 


0.6 
.5 
1.7 
1.6 
2.3 
2.6 
2.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
5.4 
7.0 


31.6 
29.0 
41.5 
36.3 
44.0 
42.4 
54.2 
57.0 
53.7 
53.5 
58.2 
61.0 


60.9 
63.1 
53.8 
61.0 
51.7 
51.2 
41.3 
40.0 
41.2 
41.0 
34.1 
30.0 


6.8 
7.1 
2.5 
.6 
2.1 
3.8 
1.9 
1.0 
1.9 
2.5 
1.9 
2.0 






Yes Bay 


6.2 
.4 
.3 

2 




Quadra 


6.2 


Kegan 


.0 






































In the anals (table 7) the parallel is less sharply defined but still 
characteristic. All reach the maximum on 18 except Dolomi and 
Nowiskay in 1904, which rise highest on 17. The extremes are 15 
and 20. Quadra shows the lowest percentage on 17 and highest on 
19. The averages vary from 18.2 at Quadra to 17.3 at Nowiskay. 
The order of localities as to number of rays is changed from that of 
the dorsals, though the Moira Sound streams are still lowest. 



90 



SALMON AND TROTTT TN ALASKA. 
Table 7. — Anal Fin-Ray Count. 



Locality. 


Date. 


Number 
exam- 
ined. 


Average 
number 
of rays. 


Percentages of fish with specified 
numbers of rays — 




15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 




1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 


512 
499 
508 
300 
512 
420 
510 
100 
511 
200 
513 
100 


18.2 
18.2 
18.0 
18.0 
17.8 
17.8 
17.7 
17.8 
17.3 
17.4 
17.3 
17.4 




0.4 


10.9 
13.0 
16.1 
14.0 
25.9 
27.1 
29.4 
32.0 
48.5 
42.5 
50.1 
44.0 


64.1 
55.4 
63.4 
69.0 
60.0 
63.8 
61.7 
56.0 
46.6 
48.0 
41.3 
46.0 


32.6 

29.2 

19.0 

16.3 

13.8 

8.8 

7.4 

8.0 

2.9 

3.0 

1.7 

3.0 


1.6 




? 




" 6.'2' 
'".'2' 


.6 

.3 

.2 

.2 

1.1 

2.0 

2.0 

6.5 

6.4 

7.0 


1.0 




.3 








.2 






'".'2 







The branchiostegal rays exhibit httle local variation in number. 
The maximum in practically all cases falls on 14/13, the left over- 
lapping membrane carrying the extra ray; about one-third the total 
occurs on this maximum. Extremes are 12/11 and 16/15. Quadra 
and Kegan resemble one another in rising high on 13/13 and failing 
low on 14/14 and the higher counts. Karta and Dolomi exhibit the 
highest counts on 14/14. In no instance was a clearly defined case 
of right overlapping seen, though occasionally the right membrane 
carries the higher number of rays. 

Table 8. — Branchiostegal Ray Count. 





Date. 


Num- 
ber 
exam- 
ined. 


Percentage of fish with specified brancliiostegal counts — 


Locality. 


11/11 


11/13 


13/15 


14/11 


12/11 


12/14 


13/U 


12/13 


12/12 


14/12 


13/14 




1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 


511 
420 
511 
100 
513 
100 
511 
200 
512 
500 
508 
300 








0.2 


0.4 


0.4 


0.4 
1.7 
2.5 
2.0 
1.0 


0.2 

1.1 

2.9 

2.0 

.2 

1.0 

1.0 

2.0 

2.1 

3.4 

.4 

.3 


1.0 
3.1 
3.5 
2.0 

.4 
2.0 

.8 

.5 
1.7 

.8 
2.7 
1.3 


3.1 






0.2 




1.9 




0.2 


0.2 


"i.o" 


.2 


.4 


.8 








4.0 


Nowiskay 






.2 






.4 


2.1 






1.0 






3.0 










.2 

.5 
.2 
.2 







.2 
1.5 

.8 
2.2 

.4 

.6 


1.1 












.2 


" '.4' 

.4 


3.5 




0.2 






.2 


2.0 








3.0 












1.7 














.6 


.3 


2.3 



















Date. 




Percentage of fish with specified branchiostega 


counts— 




Locality. 


13/12 i 13/13 


14/13 


14/14 


15/14 


15/13 


15/15 


16/15 


14/15 


16/14 


15/12 


15/16 




1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 


5.5 
9.0 
15.0 
17.0 
4.7 
4.0 
8.8 
7.5 
11.1 
12.0 
4.7 
5.3 


16.8 
21.7 
22.5 
26.0 
15.2 
22.0 
18.0 
15.0 
27.3 
21.8 
13.3 
15.0 


32.5 
35.0 
35.2 
29.0 
34.3 
34.0 
30.7 
27.0 
33.6 
30.0 
37.6 
32.3 


26.2 
15.0 
12.1 
11.0 
21.4 
18.0 
26.2 
28.0 
13.7 
14.6 
19.7 
21.6 


10.0 
7.9 
2.5 
4.0 
14.2 
10.0 
10.1 
8.5 
4.5 
7.2 
12.6 
13.3 


2.0 
1.4 
1.3 
1.0 
2.5 
2.0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.8 
3.1 
3.6 


0.8 

.7 
.2 


0.2 


"o.'s" 


0.2 

.2 


0.2 
.2 
.2 












1.0 
.4 








1.1 
3.0 

.8 
3.5 

.6 
1.2 
2.0 
1.6 


1.0 


.6 




0.2 








'""."5' 


.6 

1.0 

.2 





.2 










"".2 
.4 


.2 
LO 










.8 


.4 
.6 






.6 





SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 



91 



In the number of tubes in the lateral Ime (table 9) no great local 
variation was found, the averages varying from 132.1 to 135, with 
extremes 126 and 143. The value of this count is somewhat lessened 
by the varying degree to which the tubes extend on the caudal. 
This does not imply that all the high counts are due to this; in some 
instances high counts are due to the finer scaling. In other cases 
even low counts continued well on to caudal. The averages for the 
different years, however, show a striking similarity. The maxima 
vary from 132 for Karta in 1904 to 135 for Dolomi in 1903, but 
mostly fall on 133. 

Table 9. — Tubes of Lateral Line. 



Locality. 

'Ka^a 

Nowiskay. . . 
Yes Bay. . . . 

Quadra 

Kegan 

Dolomi 



Date. 


Num- 
ber. 


Aver- 
age. 


Percentage of fish with 


specified numbers of lateral line tubes— 


126 


127 


128 


129 


130 


131 


132 


133 


134 


135 


136 


137 


138 


139 


140 


141 


142143 


1904 


512 


132.1 


0.2 


0.4 


1.4 


3.2 


12.7 


17.5 


23.4 


20.5 


12.7 


5.0 


2.5 


0.2 


0.2 








1 


1903 


419 


132.5 




.5 


1.1 


1.7 


9.3 


18.6 


19.3 


20.0 


15.0 


9.3 


3.3 


.7 


1.4 










1904 


513 


133.1 


.2 




.8 


1.1 


5.6 


11.3 


17.7 


23.0 


15. S 


13. 6 


6.2 


3.1 


.40.8 








1903 


100 


132.9 






.1 


.1 


9.0 


11.0 


15.0 


24.0 


21.0 


13.0 


4.0 




. . 1 


i.o 






1904 


509 


133.0 






.6 


2.0 


4.9 


11.2 


20.8 


21.6 


20.2 


11.8 


3.7 


2.0 


. 6' . . . 






...0.2 


1903 


298 


132.9 




.3 




2.6 


7.6 


13.3 


19.0 


21.4 


13.3 


12.3 


5.0 


2.6 


I.3I .3 






1 


1904 


512 


134.0 






.4 


.2 


1.9 


5.2 


14.6 


15.2 


22. 


19.5 


11.5 


6.2 


1.7! .8 


.4 






1903 


496 


133.6 




.4 


1.4 


.6 


2.2 


7.2 


15.2 


20.0 


21.8 


14.6 


9.2 


4.4 


2.2 


.2 








1904 


511 


132.9 






.6 


2.1 


5.4 


11.1 


21.0 


22.9 


19.5 


9.7 


4.9 


1.3 


. / 






0.2 




1903 


99 


133.0 








1.0 


9.0 


6.0 


19.0 


23.0 


17.0 


13.0 


8.0 


2.0 


1.0 










1904 


511 


134.1 








.4 


.9 


6.2 


12.5 


15.6 


23. 5 


18.6 


12.5 


5.6 


1.7 


. / 


.6 


.4 


6.2... 


1903 


200 


135.0 








... 


.5 


1.5 


9.5 


9.0 


13.0 


25.0 


20.0 


11.0 


6.5 2.0 


.5 


.5 





In table 10, showing rows of scales, it will be seen that the counts 
for 1903 regularly fall below those for 1904. This is due to the vary- 
ing procedure regarding the fine rows in front of dorsal and ventral 
fins, where the counts were initiated. A considerable variance is 
thus introduced. The branching of the rows under the front of the 
dorsal also affected the accuracy of the count. In some specimens a 
few scales' difference in the point at which this branching occurs 
adds or excludes a row in the count, which was made for the top 
rows from front of rayed dorsal down to lateral line, and for lower 
rows from fi'ont of ventrals up to lateral line, the lateral row being 
included in the total. 

Table 10. — Rows of Scales. 



Locality. 



Dolomi . . 
Kegan . . . 

Karta. . . 
Qiuvlra. 
Yes Hmv. 
Nowiskay 



Date. 



1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 
1904 
1903 



Num- 
ber 
exam- 
ined. 



511 
200 
5111 
100 

512I 
420, 
512j 
496| 
509, 
300I 
513 
100 



Aver- 


Percentage of fish with specified 


numbers of rows 


of scales 


- 


1 




























age. 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


44.0 


0.2 


0.4 


1.3 6.6 


11.5 


18.5 


21.1 


20.5 


11.3 


5.6 


1.9 


0.6 








43.0 




2.5 


3. 5 16. 


21.5 


24. 


18.5 


9.0 


3.5 


1.0 


.5 










44.5 




.6 


.6; 3.5 


10.0 


14.0 


18.7 


22.5 


16.4 


8.5 


3.5 


.6 


6.8 






44.1 






2.0 1.0 


13.0 


21.0 


20.0 


23.0 


15.0 


3. 


1.0 


1.0 








45. 






.4 1.1 


4.3 


9.7 


18.1 


25.0 


24.0 


12.3 


3.9 


.2 


.4 


0.2 




44.0 




. 2 


.2 3.3 


13.3 


19.3 


17.1 


20. 9 


14.8 


7.1 


3.3 


.2 








45.2 






....| 1.5 


6.2 


10.3 


16. 2 


22. 1 


19.3 


13.1 


7.5 


2.5 


.8 


9 




44.9 






.01 .8 


6.0 


11.3 


20. 8 


24.4 


20. 4 


9.3 


5.2 


.8 


.4 


.2 




45. 5 






.2 1.2 


3.9 


10.6 


15. 5 


17.4 


21.2 


16.6 


8.4 


3.1 


1.2 


.6 




44.3 




.3 


1.3! 2.0 


10.3 


17.6 


21.3 


23.6 


12.6 


(;. 6 


3.0 


.6 




.3 




45.8 






8 


3.3 


8.7 


11.3 


19.3 


18.9 


19.1 


11.1 


4.7 


1.9 


.4 


0.2 


43.8 






1.0 


6.0 


9.0 


27.0 


2fi. 


17.0 


9.0 


2.0 


3.0 











92 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

The average number of rows of scales varies from 43 to nearly 46, 
with extremes 38 and 52. It was noted that the slender type form 
usually showed a slightly smaller number of rows. 

In conclusion, it may be stated that the various counts, wliile not 
amounting to demonstration, point to similarity in fishes from a given 
basin rather than to a heterogeneous mixture of schools. In general 
the environment at any one locality is very like that at any other; 
hence if the output of each stream were entirely segregated there 
would scarcely arise great differences of character among the different 
lots. The range of variation is, in fact, so small that it appears to 
fall within the possible effect of the personal factor if the counts were 
made by different individlials ; or of changing schools in any given 
stream if made by the same individual in sequence. With measure- 
ments, however, there is a difference. A sufficient number of fish 
for the purpose can be measured in a few days spent at any one locality, 
and the time element may be controlled by frequent change of place 
and renewed examinations at each. The remarkable difference 
found between the fish of such adjacent localities as Dolomi and the 
Moira Sound streams clearly proves the value of such data.'' 

STREAMS NOT UTILIZED BY SOCKEYES. 

It is unfortunate in the study of Alaska salmon that almost no 
streams not known to be frequented by sockeyes have been examined. 
The only exception of importance is the Anan of Bradfield Canal, 
which was visited on August 31, 1905. This stream is noted as the 
earliest and most productive humpback stream in Southeast Alaska. 
It is slightly less than the Naha in volume and about 3 miles in 
length below the first lake. Nowhere in the course are any impedi- 
ments to salmon at ordinary stages of water. The lake has about 160 
feet of elevation, and on the above date had a surface temperature of 
59.5°, about 1 degree higher than the stream. A tributary of the 
stream was 54°. At that time humpback and king salmon in small 
numbers were seen, and there were a few scattering red fish which 
were thought to be sockeyes. Two humpbacks were seen to jump 
in the lake. There is no apparent reason why sockeyes should not 
ascend this stream in numbers et^ual to the runs in such streams as 
those of Moira Sound. An examination of the lake might reveal some 
obstacle to their natural propagation. There was no tiling at that 
season apparent in the surface densities or temperatures to deflect a 
run entering Clarence Strait. From this strait through Ernest Sound 
and into Bradfield Canal the temperatures were in general increasing, 
54° to 58°, and densities decreasing, 1.020 to about 1.010. In Behm 

a For a similar study of the winter flatfish {Pleuronectes aviericanus) , see Hermon 
C. Bumpus, On the identification of fish artificially hatched. American Naturalist, 
vol. XXXII, June, 1898, p. 407-412. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 93 

Canal at the same time temperatures rose from 55° at the head of 
Tongass Narrows to 58° off Spacious Bay, densities falHng from 1.0188 
to 1.0124 at the same time. Subsurface tows demonstrated an 
abundance of plankton food throughout all the channels. 

Ketchikan Creek is a larger stream than Helm Bay Creek, which 
carries a few thousand sockeyes. It drains a lake and is frequented 
by humpbacks and cohos. No sockeyes are known to enter it. They 
could not reach the lake owing to falls about a mile from the mouth, 
but a school of fish looking for a suitable stream would learn tliis fact 
only after ascending the river. 

A few hundred yards below its head Naha Bay receives a small creek 
known as Steelhead Creek. This creek drains lakes of considerable 
size, and should carry water suitable for sockeyes, though they could 
not enter the lakes on account of an intercepting fall. The volume 
is small, but during the rainy season is ample for the ascent of fish, 
and many coho, dog, and humpback salmon, as well as steelheads, 
spawn there. No sockeyes are known to enter it, nor were any 
sockeye fry seen among the thousands of salmon fry taken there. 

It is probable that examination of the unstocked streams of Alaska 
would disclose others of interest in the question of stream selection. 

RELATION OF SIZE OF RUN TO SPAWNING AREA. 

There seems to be no relation between the size of the run at any 
given stream and the extent of spawning ground. Hetta, consid- 
ered good for from 50,000 to 150,000 fish, has comparatively little area 
of beds. The fish spawn mainly in one small creek about a mile in 
length, and along the lake shores. The Naha, as noted above, has 
a small area compared to its natural productiveness. Kegan has 
almost no spawning bed — ^only about a hundred yards of the main 
stream. At Nowiskay the borders of the lake are used almost entirely, 
none of the entering streams being suitable. Yes Bay and Karta 
streams both have excellent and extensive beds. On the other hand, 
the stream at Ward Cove has a greater area of good spawning ground 
than any of these streams except Karta and Yes bays, yet it yields 
too few sockeyes to pay for fishing. Karluk Lake has many tributary 
creeks that are used by spawning fish, but the total area seems scarcely 
commensurate with the enormous productiveness. 

With the exception of the few streams just mentioned, little is 
known of the spawning grounds of the Alaskan sockeye. Up to 1903 
no attempt was made to arrive at the natural fecundity of the spawn- 
ing beds; hence the investigator is absolutely without standard or 
means of accurate comparison. 



94 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

SELECTION OF SPAWNING GROUND. 
CONDITIONS REQUIRED BY THE SOCKEYE. 

Interesting preferences are shown by the mature salmon on coming 
out of the lakes to spawn. The first run of sockeyes at Fortmann 
Hatchery (usually of somewhat smaller fish) enters McCune Creek. 
This creek is a mile or so in length and drains a slope to the southeast- 
ward of the lake, the mouth, as will be seen from the map, being 
but a few yards from the entrance of the main stream. The lower 
course is over fine gravel and has but a moderate fall. 

On July 28, 1903, Heckman Lake at the surface was 64°, Naha 
River at the hatchery 60°, McCune Creek 53°. There were no 
spawners in sight. August 27 the river was 61° and the creek 52§°, 
and fish had been spawning a week. At this time some fish were 
showing a preference for the creek, which was fenced. Considerable 
numbers of ripe fish were in the river. October 15 the river was about 
46°; November 17, 36*°. 

Selective discrimination is also shown in Jordan Lake. Emma 
Creek, tributary to that lake, has a small lake near its source in 
which its w^ater is somewhat warmed. Gibson Creek, a larger stream, 
evidently has no expansion in its course, for its waters are always cold. 
Sockeyes are never known to spawn in Gibson Creek, which carries a 
temperature of 48° or less, while Emma Creek, between 50° and 60°, 
is to a small extent made use of. 

August 18, at Nowiskay, North AiTii of Moira Sound, the main 
stream above was 51°, the lake over the spawning beds 62^°. A 
few fish were in sight, but none spawning. This stream is 44° and 
the lake 46° to 45° during the spawning season. No sockeyes enter 
the stream, though dog and humpback salmon do. The sockeyes 
spawn about the lake shores. 

At Karta Lake, September 11, Willow Creek was 50^°; Alder 
Creek, 47^°. Sockeyes were spawning in both in about equal numbers, 
or slightly preferring Willow Creek, perhaps for its greater size. The 
main river belov/ the lake was 53 2° and full of dog and humpback 
salmon. 

At Yes Bay, September 19, 1903, the river above was-full of spawn- 
ing sockeyes, temperature 50°; sockeyes were also entering the 
flooded creeks at 70°. September 14, 1904, the surface of the lake 
was 52°, the water over the beds, 49.5°; in the pool above, 48.5°; a 
feeder of this pool, 46°. May 2, 1905, the temperature of the main 
stream had reached 49°. Early in September of that year salmon 
were spawning in water of 51°. 

At Quadra, August 1, 1903, the lake surface was 63° to 65°. Osten 
Creek, at the head of the lake, in which the fish spawn, 51° at 3 p. m. ; 
the sockeyes had just begun to appear at tliis stream. A fine creek 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 95 

farther down the lake was 57°; it is said few sockeyes enter this. 
The hatchery brook was 46°. The bay just off the stream August 5 
was 64° at 6 p. m., or practically the same as the outflow from the 
lake. 

At Kegan, October 3, fish were spawning in the main stream above 
at 47° and refusing a smaller stream at 43° flowing through the same 
mouth; later they were reported to be spawning in both, tempera- 
tures unlaiown, but doubtless equalized to a degree. 

At Ward Cove, September 6, a few sockeyes were spawning in 
the stream at 55^°, but this is not a^sockeye stream, properly speak- 
ing, though it has the required lake and an extensive stretch of good 
spawning bed. 

In the Wallowa Dr. Kendall observed that the dwarf sockeye 
preferred the warmer water after temperatures fell below 45°, though 
spawning continued until the temperature had dropped to 40°. 

These observations indicate that the natural spawning temperature 
for the sockeye is between 47° and 55°, probably no.t over 50° by 
preference. (See p. 97.) The natural fall temperature for creeks not 
draining lakes or extensive swamps is about 45° to 48°, lake outlets 
55° to 60°. The presence in a stream's course of a lake of any large 
size and a low altitude may usually be at once discovered by tem- 
perature, except, of course, when the lake outflow is mingled with 
another stream of low temperature, as from a glacier. Ordinary 
springs have a summer temperature of 44° to 48°, winter around 40°. 
Creeks, of course, fall with the air temperature to freezing. 

In the same manner in which they approach the ascent of a river 
from the sea, the sockeyes school about the spawning stream a short 
time before entering, and after entering the current proceed by easy 
stages to the bed finally occupied. Frequently they are seen to drift 
back over a riffle they had almost surmounted, and appear in most 
cases to enter swift water with hesitation and caution. It was 
noted at the Fortmann Hatchery when high water prevented the 
usual seining of ripe fish that the natural spawning did not com- 
mence for a day or so after the fish covered the beds. A short 
time seems to be spent in selecting nests. 

The sexes of the Alaska sockeyes as found during the fishing sea- 
son are approximately equal, or perhaps there is more commonly a 
slight excess of males. Of 1,025 examined at Karta Bay June 24 
to Jul}^ 8, 1904, the sexes were equal; 548 of the first arrivals at 
Nowiskay July 14-22 had an excess of 12 males, while of 551 at 
this same place August 10-31 males were still in excess by 19. At 
Kegan from July 24-29, 988 examples showed 28 in favor of the 
females; Yes Bay July 26-28, 1905, had an excess of males by 10 
in 510, while on August 14 among 172 fish the females exceeded by 
24; August 16-20, 1904, in 976 examples there were 31 more males 
10731—07 7 



96 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

than females. Dolomi August 4-11 showed a surplus of 21 males 
in 990; at Quadra August 24-29, 967 examples had an excess of 
45 males. These figures show an average preponderance of males 
by 1.3 per cent. There seems to be no difference in the time of 
arrival of the two sexes. One sex may be more numerous on one day's 
fishing and the other on the following day. 

It is stated that in the Eraser during the first of the run, the males 
are greatly in excess. The presence of unmated males is to a cer- 
tain extent damaging, since they go through the spawning move- 
ments alone, and thus disturb the beds. Under wholly natural con- 
ditions there should be practical equality in numbers of the two 
sexes. 

PREFERENCES OF THE KING SALMON. 

The king salmon spawns in higher temperatures than the sockeye. 
On the McCloud River it begins spawning at a temperature of about 
56°, the summer run completing the season within 3° or 4° of that 
temperature. In Battle Creek the fall run spawns in practically 
the same range. That they habitually seek a less depressed tem- 
perature than the sockeye is shown by their spawning below the 
lakes into or beyond which the latter species invariably continues. 
This has been noted at Karluk, on the Wallowa, and on the Salmon 
and Payette rivers in Idaho, though in short streams like the Yes 
Bay Stream the straggling king salmon may also go above the first 
lake. But wliile this temperature is suitable a higher can not be 
endured. It has been found that the summer run can not be suc- 
cessfully confined in lower Battle Creek. These fish naturally travel 
to the cooler upper reaches, and retention in the warmer water of the 
lower course causes their death. 

At the Trocadero Aquarium it was found that fish of 3 and 4 years 
can not endure a summer and fall temperature of more than 61°; an 
addition of 3 or 4 degrees is fatal. Moreover, at that period an 
abundance of water is essential. This latter condition, perhaps, 
enables the fish safely to make the ascent of the heated waters of the 
Sacramento. During May, when the height of the summer run is 
passing, the river temperatures range closely about 60°, at which 
temperature the fish are able to move at the rate of 10 miles per day. 
In August, when the fall run is traveling up the river, the temperatures 
are decreasing from about 80° to 74°. At this temperature they 
travel but half as fast, though at a more advanced stage of maturity. 
During October and November the temperatures continue to fall, 
varying at Sacramento City from 70° to 60°, and 60° to 50° during 
the respective months. At tliis time the spawning temperatures of 
50° to 55° are found in the middle course of the river, and in seasons 
when the depth of water is suitable it is found that the salmon spa^vn 
largely on the shallows below Tehama, thus withdrawing large num- 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 97 

bers from the propagation stations of the upper river. A careful 
study of the king sahnon's movements on the Columbia is much to 
be desired. The greater length of the river, more numerous branches, 
and higher latitude and altitudes make that basin an extra^ordinary 
field for research, and its very great economic value demands the 
results. 

SPAWNING STREAMS CHOSEN BY THE COHO, DOG, AND HUMPBACK 

SALMON. 

The coho apparently demands a yet lower temperature for spawn- 
ing than the sockeye. Where it enters lake outlets early, it presses 
into the higher waters in much the same manner. It differs in that 
it often selects streams not connected with lakes, but in all cases its 
later arrival from the sea finds the temperature low. Wliile the most 
active of any species, long journeys do not find favor with it. Wal- 
lowa and Baker lakes seem to be at about the limit to which it travels. 

In the Naha in 1903 the cohos were spawning October 27 in a tem- 
perature of 46°. This is probably about the temperature at which 
they begin. During October and later the small streams fall rapidly 
in temperature, so that scarcely any running water after that date 
would be too warm for spawning purposes. Since in favorable places 
the coho continues spawning throughout most of the winter, any 
temperature above freezing does not seem to be prohibitive. At 
Hetta it is reported that the cohos sometimes spawn in small num- 
bers throughout the winter, even as late as March. This lake is said 
to have areas of open water, perhaps due to warm springs, about 
which sockeyes spawn until February. Alexander (ms. notes) 
states that in the winter of 1902-3, while the lakes and stream were 
frozen over, one of the lakes of South Olga stream, Kadiak Island, 
was visited by a party of white men and Indians who found a 
large number of sockeyes and cohos frozen in the ice. These were 
thought to be late-run fish entering after the canneries had closed. 
Many carcasses of salmon that had been frozen in the ice were seen 
by Rutter at Karluk Lake in the spring of 1903. In that stream 
the occurrence at times of late runs arriving after the usual closing 
time of the cannery early in September is well known. They more 
frequently occur in seasons of a small early run, and at such times 
the cannery is held open for them. The carcasses of winter spawners 
were still to be seen on Trail Creek the last of May, 1904. 

The dog and humpback salmons apparently exercise less discrimi- 
nation than other species. The humpback was noted as working 
upstream in the Naha at 61° August 25, 1903, and in the Anan at 58° 
August 30, 1904; yet it had completed spawning in the outlet of 
Yes Lake September 11, 1905, in temperatures around 56°. Karta 
River, September 12, 1903, was full of both dog and humpback sal- 



98 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

moil spawning at a temperature of 54°, and Stieelhead Creek contained 
many spawning humpbacks August 25, 190.3, at about tJie same tem- 
perature. It is probable that the optimum temperature for the 
humpback is about the same as for the king. The dog salmon seems 
to accept a slightly lower degree ; a few were spawning in a creek of 
Moira Sound as early as August IS in 48°. 

NATURE OF SPAWNING BEDS SELECTED. 

With the exception of the coho, the salmons appear to require a 
depth of water and a fineness of bed material somewhat in corre- 
spondence with their relative size. The king salmon spaA^ois in water 
of a depth up to 2 or 3 feet, with a bottom of gravel and coarse sand. 
No exact conditions seem to be required. In the Salmon River, 
Idaho, the kings are reported to avoid the coarser gravel and swift 
currents; in the Sacramento they will spawn on bowldery rapids. 

The sockeye affects shallower water for spawning than the king. 
On most Alaskan beds many occupy water which does not completely 
cover the male fish. In the selection of spawning beds this species 
is unique in requiring the adjacency of a lake; also it is the only 
species of the genus that ever spawns in still water. The lake shores 
chosen are more frequently portions through which a small rill flows 
or where seepage comes through, but sockeyes are known to spawn 
where no inflow of any kind is apparent. 

In the streams the beds chosen are similar to those well known for 
various species, but, as mentioned above, in water of less depth than 
is usual for the king. Sometimes bottoms of fine gravel are occupied, 
sometimes bottoms of larger bowlders where the current is so swift 
as to make the holding of position precarious. No observations are 
recorded as to whether the first comers occupy the more accessible 
grounds. They apparently distribute from the beginning, and there 
is no evidence that a spawner ever recedes from a position once chosen 
and occupied. Unless carried out by the current, even the spawned- 
out fish remain until they die about the pool where they have spawned. 
At Yes Bay stream in 1903 fish could be found throughout the stream 
as far as the falls, but strikingly few examples were attempting to pass 
higher. The writer has seen no fish attempt the dam on the Naha 
just above the spawning beds, though cohos are said to do so. A few 
individuals usually enter all the small unsuitable brooks during times 
of freshets, apparently returning with the subsidence of the water. 

In the Karluk tributaries many fish occupy beds where none of the 
material is of a size they can move, hence the naked eggs are swept 
dowTi the current and doubtless most of them lost. In bottoms of 
finer material occupied by many fish dead eggs in aljundance are 
usually to be seen in the eddies behind the hillocks formed by the 
spawners working up the gravel. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 99 

The coho, perhaps in its effort to reach low temperatures, frequently 
continues up the small streams to a point where the bottom material 
is coarse. In Steelhead Creek it passes humpbacks and dogs on the 
gravelly lower part of the stream and spawns in the rough upper por- 
tions. In all the small Alaskan streams it doubtless occupies the 
sockeye beds later in the season and perhaps does some damage, but 
the greater part of the run spawns below those beds and in creeks not 
entered by the sockeyes. Cohos, like the smaller species, while mak- 
ing their way upstream or when frightened out of the "nest," may 
frequently be seen in water too shallow to cover them. Whether these 
"nests" are excavated in shallows where the original depth is less than 
that of the fish, or whether the small amount of water is not more 
usually due to a fall in the stream subsequent to the fish's entry, has 
not been fully ascertained. 

Humpback and dog salmon may often be seen spawning on the 
same beds, but in general the former is more frequently seen on finer 
bottoms and in shallower water, while the more powerful dog salmon 
sometimes occupies bottoms of coarse gravel in some depth of water. 
The humpback is said sometimes to fail to get beyond the reach of 
high tide in the selection of its spawning place. 

DEPOSIT OF EGGS. 

The deposit of spawn on riffles and in small streams, where it is most 
subject to the action of floods and frost, at first sight seems to be poor 
economy. But the necessities are twofold, first, aeration, and second, 
protection from light and enemies. In water of much depth relative 
to volume the bottom current is retarded, \vith the result that fine 
sediment is deposited and the circulation through the gravel or other 
material is impeded if not entirely cut off. If the eggs were placed in 
such a region of little current, they would not be carried from under 
the mother fish and the material for covering and protecting them 
would not be carried down over them, hence any such movement as 
the spawning fish now makes would only lead to stirring up eggs and 
gravel, with the result of destroying the first spawn within a few days 
after its deposit. For this reason the lake spawning of the sockeye 
must be of less proportionate value. 

The action of the spawning fish in breaking away the gravel by means 
of forcing the body and tail against it achieves the double purpose of 
working the sex product down to the genital opening and of setting 
the fine gravel and sand in motion to cover the eggs. When first 
extruded the contents of the egg envelope do not quite fill it, the egg 
is soft and will bear considerable rough handling. Its specific gravity, 
only slightly greater than the water, holds it to the bottom, but allows 
it readily to drift along with the current. Upon finding an early lodg- 
ment the osmotic absorption of water "freezes" it to the object 
against which it rests, and any drifting particles of sand not heavy 



100 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

enough to dislodge it readily cover and conceal it from the light. It 
is probable that the dead eggs referred to above as seen in abundance 
about a well-covered ground are as often the earlier deposits dug up 
by later arrivals as eggs that have failed to be covered. Live eggs 
are almost never seen among these, as should be the case if they are 
of recent deposit. Uncovered eggs must eventually perish by the light 
even if not consumed by egg-eating fishes and birds. In ordinary cur- 
rents the eggs drift perhaps but a few feet. Very early the ridge 
below the ''nest" rises to a height that creates a bottom eddy, causing 
the downward motion of the eggs to cease on its lower slope. For 
this reason when one of these ridges is opened the greater number of 
eggs ordinarily is found in its lower portion. 

During the season of spawning a well-covered ground becomes 
thrown, through the joint action of the fish and the current, into high 
ridges, or hillocks, sometimes as much as 2+ feet above the corre- 
sponding depressions or holes. Eggs may usually be found buried in 
these ridges, but their semibuoyancy and spherical form make it quite 
difficult in a current to recover them without a screen. The abun- 
dance of dead eggs which at times collects in the- eddies below these 
ridges has been mentioned above. On Karluk Lake in 1903, in the 
creek on which the spawners were counted, these beds were examined 
by digging in the gravel to find the condition of the deposited eggs. 
Between August 5 and September 2, 58 "nests" were so examined. 
In these were found 4,005 good eggs and 2,022 dead ones, or, in other 
words, about two-thirds of the buried eggs were found to be in good 
condition. On the latter date 587 eyed eggs were found under about 
10 inches of gravel, with only 13 dead ones. This demonstrates that 
eggs will live and develop under proper conditions when deeply 
buried. In another stream, in the center of a nest, under 6 inches of 
gravel, only 29 of 620 eggs recovered were living. In a third bed of 
1,140 eggs taken from the lower half of the nest, in a light current and 
from under 7 inches of gravel, only 28 were dead. In general, the 
observer records few eggs from locations in strong current; this was 
possibly in part from failure to find the eggs as well as from their 
scarcity. Most beds show a decided balance in favor of the good eggs. 
In two examinations of the connecting stream from one of the 
tributary lakes less than 4 per cent of the eggs were dead. 

COMPLETENESS OF SPAWNING. 

In 1903 a careful count was kept of the sockeyes spawning in one 
stream of Karluk Lake, the second from the outlet on the right or east 
side. This is a small creek, averaging some 10 feet in width, about 
1 mile of which is used for spawning beds. From August 5 to Sep- 
tember 5 of that year, 21,756 spawned fish were examined in this 
creek, presumably the total number spawning there in that time and 
practically the total for the season. Of these, males were in excess by 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA, 101 

about 3 per cent, the numbers being 10,723 females and 11,033 males. 
But one unspawned female was found dead. Dead unspawned males 
are more common. Of 636 females opened, about 80 per cent were 
entirely spawned out, i. e., with no loose eggs in the abdominal cavity; 
the; remaining 20 per cent had an average of 97 eggs unspawned, with 
the most in any instance noted 1,246. The sockeye carries between 
2,500 and 4,000 eggs, an average, perhaps, of about 3,500. This 
remnant, then, amounts to about one-half of 1 per cent of the total 
number of eggs matured. The product of this one stream on the 
same basis of estimate is 37,000,000 eggs. It is believed that less than 
one-tenth the number of fish entering the lake spawned in the above- 
mentioned creek. Thus approximately 400^000,000 sockeye eggs 
were spawned in Karluk Lake basin in 1903. Sockeyes are reported 
by natives to spawn late in the winter, even under the ice, but it is 
doubtful whether it is usual for any noteworthy number to occur as a 
fall run, as with other species and in more southerly streams. 

In 1903 the spawning season was practically over early in Septem- 
ber. Since the fishing continues ordinarily into that month, the 
spawning should last much later. The double operation of cannery 
and hatchery, perhaps, accounts for its early close. . On the Naha the 
season continues into November. At Hetta the fish are reported to 
spawn in small numbers until later in the winter. 

PERCENTAGE OF NATURAL PRODUCTION. 

The percentage of natural production of fry is a matter of the 
utmost interest. In daylight observation of a well-populated spawn- 
ing ground one is sometimes struck by the absence of factors to 
cause damage. At Yes Bay, Karta Bay, Kegan, the Naha, Wards 
Cove, and other places one may see hundreds of various species 
spawning uninterruptedly. At times on the humpback beds where 
fish are numerous the dead eggs lie in numbers in the eddies for days 
and even weeks untouched, not a trout or sculpin in sight — though it 
is certain that at least a few are in protected places near by. The 
ducks arrive late after most of the spawning in that region is over. It 
is believed by the writer that the natural loss of spawn' has been 
overestimated. 

In Steelhead Creek in 1903 comparatively few cohos were noted — 
it is believed not more than 50 pairs ; yet over 3,000 fry of that species 
were sometimes taken in a single night as they were leaving for the 
sea. The run begins early in May and lasts until July. In six sets 
of the net in May and June an average of about 1,300 of these fry were 
taken, which indicates a run of between 50,000 and 75,000 for the 
season, or a product of at least 30 per cent. Similar facts regarding 
steelheads were noted in the same creek, which was observed care- 
fully in both 1903 and 1904 for spawning steelheads in an effort to 
take sufficient eggs for-an experiment. Not over a dozen pairs could 



102 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

be seen either season, yet early in July the fry were migrating at the 
rate of 200 to 300 per night and the creek was full of them till the fall 
rains swept them out. 

Regarding the migration of sockeye young from Seton Lake in 1903, 
Babcock states : ' ' The sight was amazing, and impressed one with the 
fact that the percentage of natural fertilization of ova and the survival 
of the residting fry was greater than has been generally believed by 
the authorities." 

It will be noted that eyed eggs were found in the Karluk creeks 
on September 2. On this date the lake surface was 44°, having 
fallen about 10° in as many days. With the shortening of the days 
and prevalent cloudy weather the temperatures must fall rapidly 
from this date, and it is questionable whether any but the earliest 
deposited and hence most advanced eggs hatch before the onset of 
freezing weather. 

Fr}^ were found as late as August 1 in the stream just below 
the lake; species unidentified. It is improbable that any consider- 
able number of sockeye eggs hatch in time for the young to seek the 
shelter of the lake for the winter. With the congealing of the 
waters in the mountains the streams will become reduced in volume 
and the entire bed must at times become frozen over, part by its 
exposure and the remainder by the formation of anchor ice. The 
habit of the fish of spawning on the shallow riffles must unfailingly 
subject the spawn to this influence. That it is not an extermi- 
nating influence is due to the covering of gravel which the eggs have 
received. The depth to which the bared beds freeze in winter has 
not been ascertained. At points where a constant current perco- 
lates through, such as must occur on the spawning riffles, it is im- 
probable that this depth is so great as might be suspected in view of 
the low air temperatures. 

The effects of freshets are largely nullified by the season at which 
they occur. Late fall rains produce comparatively small floods for 
the reason that the precipitation in the hills falls as snow. The 
spring floods which come with the melting snows will fmd the eggs 
in great .part hatched, and fry are largely able to rise above the 
deposit. 

RELATION OF SPAWNING HABITS TO NUMBER OF FISH. 

The spawning habits of a species bear a suggestive relation to its 
abundance. The humpback in Southeast Alaska far outnumbers all 
others. This is a region of small streams, and practically all that 
have a suitable bed and are accessible from the sea are utilized by 
this salmon. The small size of the adult humpback makes spa%vn- 
ing possible in even shallower water than the sockeye or coho re- 
quires. The number of eggs, about 2,000, is perhaps less than in 
other species. The incubation period is less, than that of the sock- 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 103 

eye or king. This, with the early arrival on the beds and conse- 
quent high temperature of the incubating water, brings the hump- 
back egg to a hardy stage early in the season and the fry to a stage 
of development that sends them seaward with the opening of spring. 
The small size and light color of the egg also may be advantageous. 
In regions of larger rivers, such as Bristol Bay, the number of hump- 
backs is much less in proportion to other species. The same is true 
for more southerly regions. In the Bristol Bay region the average 
size of humpbacks is considerably less than in Southeast Alaska. 
Whether these facts are due to the character of the streams can only 
be surmised. 

The limited number of cohos can not be attributed to scarcity of 
spawning beds of the nature required. These are scarcely less 
widely distributed than those suitable for the humpback. The 
spawn incubates in about the same time, but is somewhat larger and 
more brightly colored. The increased number of eggs, about 3,000, 
should offset the disadvantage of size. The cohos coming last to 
the beds, their eggs are undisturbed by other fishes, but since much 
of the spawning is late the loss from physical causes may be greater. 
The fry are probably less active, reach the sea later in the season, and 
perhaps suffer greater loss from predatory enemies. 

The dog salmon, while widely scattered, occurs in numbers only 
in selected streams. The eggs are very large, rather light colored, 
and run about 3,000 to the fish. The incubation period probably 
differs little from that of the humpback. The fry reach the sea 
early, and there is no obvious reason why this should be one of the 
scarcer species. 

The spawning habits of both king and sockeye are obviously 
advantageous. The king, resorting to large rivers, is able by its 
strength to reach waters where the conditions are most favorable. 
Other species do not work over its beds; and though limited in the 
main trunks entered, the king secures extent of territory in the nu- 
merous branches ; the habits of the young permit them to ol)tain the 
necessary food in the streams, and the distance of the trip to be per- 
formed insures their sufficient age and size for adequate protection 
upon reaching the sea and its rapacious inhabitants. The summer 
residence conserves the species to an extent, while the migration of 
the main body as fry prevents overpopulation of the limited fresh- 
water area. In this connection it is of interest to note that the fish 
found in the Columbia headwaters in 1895 were of less than the aver- 
age size for that stream, weighing only 10 to 14 pounds. Even allow- 
ing for tissue expenditure during the ascent of the stream this does 
not indicate that the stronger fish travel farthest, but rather the con- 
trary. It seems possible that at a certain point the beds are occupied 
by the stronger fish and that the less powerful go beyond in search 
of unpreempted grounds. 



104 SALMON AND TKOUT IN ALASKA. 

The sockeye profits by its lake habit. An unoccupied food supply 
is thus made available, and protection for the immatere young is 
obtained in waters not naturally inhabited by many predaceous 
animals. In basins of large productiveness the overflow of fry, 
migrating as such, conserves the lake food supply. In the main the 
species secures immunity from disturbance on the spawning beds, 
passing beyond all but coho and king and avoiding the latter by 
selection of colder water. 

CHANGES INCIDENT TO MATURATION. 

The changes that are associated with maturation of the reproductive 
element vary in extent in the sexes, in the species, and with the age. 
The production of the jaws and growth of canine teeth that is more 
or less characteristic of all male salmons is seen also in the trout 
and the charr. The change in body form — the increase in depth by 
the ridging of the back — is much more developed in the salmon. The 
changes seem to be greater in the larger, and presumably older, fish. 
The grilse of the king show very little of it, scarcely more than the 
female, and in the case of fingerlings in the Sacramento which develop 
mature spermatozoa there is no evident external change. 

In the trout and charr the upper jaw elongates somewhat but does 
not become hooked. The lower jaw elongates and becomes knobbed 
or hooked; this swelling is usually received in a corresponding recess 
or notch in the upper jaw, but sometimes is sufficiently large to 
prevent complete closure of the mouth. After the spawning season 
is over these growths are to an extent resorbed, but the jaws never 
fully recover their original shape. 

In the Sacramento the king salmon of the spring run show none of 
these characters until some time after entering the fresh water. The 
late runs, being more developed, show some changes by the time they 
have reached the mouth of the river in Suisun Bay. The various 
changes, which have been fully described by Rutter, are progressive 
with the development of the reproductive elements. Little of the red 
color is shown by this species except in the large (old?) males, and 
even in these never approaches the brilliancy of the sockeye or coho. 
Neither do they as fully develop the body depth as species which 
frequent shallower waters. 

The Alaskan sockeye at the time it is first taken in the fisheries has 
already begun to show the hooked jaw, so that with care one can 
distinguish the sexes in the larger fish. Cases will occur, however, in 
which the female has jaws somewhat prolonged, and there are cor- 
responding cases of males with neat heads, so that in statistical work 
it is essential that the fish be opened to make sure of the sex. Late in 
the season, or in occasional schools at any time, the males are more 
readily distinguishable. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 105 

When the sockeyes emerge from the lake en route to the spawning 
beds the change has become complete. The entire fish, except the 
head and fins, has changed from its original green and silver to a bril- 
liant vermilion or maroon. The head retains its bright green color 
and the fins become variously dark. At this time the sockeye rivals 
the tropical fishes in beauty of coloration. The elongation of jaws 
and development of depth are extreme in large males; the females 
show little of it and acquire less brilliance of color, in some cases 
scarcely any. 

The grilse (Arctic salmon) exhibit less change than the large fish, 
but show all the characters to a degree. 

The dwarf sockeye exhibits very little change; sex of ripe fish taken 
in Wallowa Lake can not be distinguished by external appearance. 
At the time of entering streams for spawning they are thus described 
by Kendall : 

Back olive green, more or less spotted with black; dorsal and caudal somewhat 
spotted; sides dusky metallic blue or smoky with faint marks like parr marks; belly 
white or slightly dusky. Pectorals, ventrals, and anal black, tipped with white; 
outer ray of pectorals white; a general brassy luster after the fish has been out of 
water some time. 

Colors, spotting, etc., vary in different individuals, but there is never 
any red. In Alturas Lake in larger examples of the dwarf the red 
is sometimes present and the other changes are somewhat more 
marked. 

The coho shows more change in the female than any other species, 
and the jaw develops more knob, as in the trout. It is sometimes 
difficult to distinguish the sexes among spawning fishes in the Naha. 
Both may acquire a red almost as brilliant as the sockeye' s, so that 
in the water it is easy to mistake either species for the other. 

The extreme height of the back in the male of the humpback and 
the characteristic color blotching of it and of the dog salmon are well 
knowTi. The females of the two species, particularly the latter, 
retain silvery colors and neat forms more fully than other species. 

The useful purpose, if any, which these changes subserve is difficult 
to surmise. It may easily be believed that the development of teeth, 
and of jaws to render them effective, is a matter of defense with the 
male. It does not hesitate to make use of the weapon to drive away 
intruders, but its awkward and slow movements render its armature 
of no avail so far as trout and other egg-eating fish are concerned. 
The only service is in preventing other males of the same species 
from mating with the female, and even in this the ability is not always 
equal to the emergency. A small active male has been seen to slip 
alongside a spawning female during the absence of her consort in pur- 
suit of another interloper and administer all the attention shown by 
her regular attendant. In general it may be assumed that in this man- 



106 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

ner nature secures the offspring of the well-developed mature males, 
which offspring is known to be stronger and more thrifty than that of 
the younger fish. 

The exhibition of beauty in color and form in the male, which has 
been thought to be the result of sex selection, can hardly be so con- 
sidered in the case of these fish. The female apparently has no option 
in the matter. The larger male will drive away the smaller and take 
possession. The peculiar compression of the male, with the flattening 
of the ventral aspect, increases its ability to work through the shallow 
water, which the small size of the female, without such change, allows 
it to enter. 

RETURN OF ADULTS TO SALT WATER. 

To test the question of the return of salmon to salt water after once 
entering a river system, Rutter, in 1903, made two experiments. 
Eight hundred salmon (species not noted, but probably mainly if not 
all sockeyes) were tagged and released in Karluk Lagoon (brackish 
water) 1 mile from the sea. Four hundred of these were released 
June 12 and 1.5. One was retaken outside in a cannery seine 1 hour 
after release, 3 were retaken entering Karluk Lake after 11, 13, and 34 
days, respectively; 2 were retaken by seines in the lagoon, and 1 died in 
the lagoon. Doubtless many of the tags were lost, and perhaps many 
fish entered the lakes or were retaken outside and unobserved. 

Five hundred and fourteen were tagged and released on June 30. 
One of these was retaken in New Red (Ayakulik) River, 40 miles down 
the coast, 3 days later. One reached the lake in 10 days; another was 
found spawning there August 2; one was seined in the lagoon 2 days 
after release; and another, a green female somewhat fungused and 
worn, 27 days after. No others were reported. 

This experiment is very incomplete and most desirable data are 
lacking, especially as to whether the fish were taken into the lagoon 
in a live car or were seined in the lagoon after voluntary entrance. 
The influence of the tag, clamped to the lower jaw by a strong ring, 
in irritating the fish and stimulating unnatural action can not be 
estimated. The results point to the probability that some fish 
remain in the lagoon for several days, some reenter the ocean, and 
others spend varying times somewhere between the lagoon and lake. 

Another experiment was the tagging of 255 individuals at the 
mouth of the lake, from July 3 to 25. Of these, 123 were males, 64 
of which were ripe and 66 showing more or less of decay, fungus, etc.; 
132 were females, 23 ripe, and 70 in poor condition. These fish were 
taken in a trap built at the outlet of the lake, but on the shallow or 
small current side. This location unfortunately led to the securing 
of a large percentage of weak fish, and made the results less vahiable. 
In general, fish reach the lakes in sound condition. Of these tagged 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 107 

jfish, 3 females and 1 male were retaken in the ocean by the cannery 
seines in from three to eleven days after tagging, 1 was retaken in 
the trap the following day, and 2 males were found in the spawning 
creeks. 

The main interest attaching to this result is in the number of ripe 
fish obtained at the entrance to the lake. The percentage of ripe 
fish in the number trapped is of no point, since the strong green fish 
entered in the heavj^ current beyond the trap. It may be that these 
fish were hindered from making an early ascent of the river by the 
seining carried on for the cannery, and that such a condition of ripe- 
ness is unnatural. If there is no purpose in a lake residence of about 
one month it is difficult to see how it should have been brought to 
be the normal habit. That these exceptions were abnormalities is 
shown by the failure to find any of these tagged fish in the nearly 
22,000 spawned fish examined at a creek which these ripe fish would 
mogt naturally seek, the nearest good ground about the lake. 

The main body of fish entering Karluk Lake came in against the 
stronger current and in the deeper water. During the day they 
entered in small schools of 20 to 60 or more, at intervals of a minute 
or less. They seemed to linger about the foot of the lake some days. 

ENEMIES OF YOUNG SALMON. 

In the trap at the mouth of Karluk Lake in 1903, 190 charrs were 
taken between June 5 and July 25. The biggest catch (20) was 
made on June 5, after which the number fell off rapidly. The 
next highest catch was made June 26, about ten days after the arrival 
of the first salmon. On the 27th a charr of 535 mm. length was 
taken with salmon eggs in its stomach. On July 1 a steelhead, also 
containing salmon eggs, was taken. One hundred and fifty-seven, 
or about 82 per cent, of the stomachs were empty; 14, or 7^ per cent, 
contained remains of fish, mostly cottoids; 13, or 7 per cent, con- 
tained insects or their larvfe; 6, or over 3 per cent, contained mol- 
lusks, snails, and clams; 3 in addition had eaten eggs, 2 salmon eggs, 
and the third those of some small fish. 

It will be observed that these fish were taken in an "upstream" 
trap into which the fish would come from the river. In the river at 
this time were numerous schools of salmon fry and small fingerlings, 
yet there is no record that any stomach contained a single identifiable 
young salmon. 

During May and June many of these trout (?) were seen jumping 
near the foot of the lake. On the first day the trap was installed. 
May 29, 10 were taken; on the 31st, 9, etc. No young salmon are 
reported in these. Upon the occupation of the spawning beds by the 
salmon the trout follow to feed on their spawn. This probably forms 
a large part of their food until late in the season, when the maggots 
from the flies breeding in the dead salmon become more common. 



108 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

On August 19, 131 cliarrs were taken in a seine haul in a spawning 
creek. One hundred and twenty-eight of these were feeding on 
maggots; 3 contained insects, and 1 a cottoid; 54 were without sal- 
mon eggs; but the remaining 77 contained from 1 to 110 eggs each, an 
average of 16. At this time there were few live spawning salmon in 
the creek, and few dead eggs in sight in the eddies, where earlier 
there had been an abundance. The trout were more numerous than 
at any previous time, in schools of 30 to 50 as well as many isolated 
individuals. 

In the salt water about Karluk Beach they were even more abun- 
dant than in the lake. Sometimes as many as 2,000 are taken in a 
single haul, and ordinarily at least 500. No effort is made to destroy 
them. July 20, 220 of these were examine<I for stomach contents. 
The most common food was small crustaceans of several species, 
next in abundance sand launces, both adult and half grown being 
quite common; young cod were found in many, 40 being taken from 
one stomach. No other fish were found. Jvdy 25, of 22 examples, 
7 to 18 inches in length, from the hatchery corral (fresh water), 17 
were feeding; 2 had salmon eggs, 1 had 5 2-inch salmon fingerlings, 
others had various crustaceans. Of 19 examples, 10 to 20 inches in 
length, from the lagoon, examined July 28, only 4 were feeding. One 
had eggs, 1 maggots, 1 young sand launces, and the other some uniden- 
tifiable fish. No rainbow or cutthroat trout were seen in Karluk 
Lake. 

July 14, 1903, the stomachs of 28 rainbow trout, 2 cutthroat, and 2 
charrs, taken in the Naha, were examined. None contained young 
salmon; 1 contained small eggs like herring eggs, and all the rest 
contained only caddis larvae. The fish ranged from 2 feet to about 8 
inches in length. At that time of year many coho young are resident 
in the river. 

During the summer of 1905 many trout of the three species from 
Yes River were examined. No record was kept of the number, but 
it amounts to at least a hundred. In these the food was mainly 
caddis and insects from the surface. No young salmon were found, 
though coho yoimg were present in the stream. 

Trout and charrs have been taken near the hatchery at the head 
of Heckman Lake with numbers of fry in their stomachs. The exact 
conditions are not known. In the planting of large numbers of fry 
or small fingerlings, some are sure to be at least for a time disabled 
and numbers can readily be captured by an active fish. The loss is 
apt to be especially large if the plant is made in a vicinity where bad 
eggs have been dumped, and the waters thus "baited." 

The sculpin or bullhead would seem to be a more dangerous enemy 
to the salmon fry than is the trout. It lurks under the stones in just 
such places as the fry will seek for shelter. Its movements are ex- 
tremely rapid and its appetite insatiable. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 109 

Ducks are perhaps the most active enemy of the salmon in Ahxska, 
especially the sawbill {Merganser) and golden eye (Clangula). All 
ducks will doubtless root up the beds in low water, but those just 
mentioned, as well as the harlequin (Histrionicus) and the gulls and 
terns, will dive for eggs. The sawbill is resident in Southeast Alaska, 
where the young arrive in time to feed on the coho fry but rather too 
late for others. In the fall the birds work with the spawning salmon, 
diving for the eggs as they are extruded or exposed by tlie shifting of 
the gravel. Mallards feed more on the blowfly maggots in the dead 
iish, but apparently find a sufficient number of eggs to ruin the flavor 
of their flesh for the table. The lai-ger flocks of ducks arrive rather 
late in the season in the Loring district, doing greatest damage to 
the coho in large streams, but a considerable number arrive in time 
for the earlier species of salmon. They do not seem to frequent the 
small streams, except those tributary to lakes. The grebe family 
does not seem ordinarily to take young salmon. 

GEOGRAPHICAL GLOSSARY. 

Following is a list of the geographical names used in this report, 
with approximate position of the places. The astronomical position is 
given of rivers and bays for their mouths, of islands for the center, of 
straits for the center or the more prominent mouth or connecting end. 

Admiralty Inlet, waters between Whidby Island and the mainland to the westward. 

48° N., 122° 40' W. 
Alder Creek, one of two main tributaries entering at the head of upper Karta Lake. 
Alert Bay, small bight on south side of Cormorant Island north of Vancouver Island 

50° 35' N., 126°.57' W. 
Aleutian Islands, chain of islands on the south of Bei'ing Sea. 
Alturas Lake, small lake of the Columbia Basin, tributary to Salmon River, central 

Idaho. 43° 55' N., 114° 51' W. 
Anan Stream, stream emptying into Bradfield Canal from the south. 5G° 12' N., 131° 

49' W. 
Annette Island, small island south of Revillagigedo Island. 55° 08' N., 131° 30' W. 
Baird, U. S. hatchery on the McCloud River, northern California. 
Baker Lake, small lake in northern Washington, tributary to the Skagit River. Loca- 
tion of United States hatchery. 48° 44' N., 121° 37' W. 
Bartlctt Bay, small bight off east side of Glacier Bay. 58° 27' N., 135° 53' W. 
Battle Creek, tributary of the Sacramento River, northern California. 
Behm Canal, channel separating Revillagigedo Island from Cleveland Peninsula on 

the west and the mainland on the east. 
Bering Island, largest of the Komandorski group. 
Boca de Quadra, long, narrow fiord in the mainland south of Revillagigedo Island. 

55° 05' N., 131° W. 
Bradfield Canal, deep fiord in the mainland above Cleveland Peninsula. 55°11'N., 

132° W. 
Bristol Bay, large Imy north of Alaska Peninsula. 58° N., 159° W. 
Cape Caamano, south point of Cleveland Peninsula. 55° 30' N., 131° 58' W. 
Cape Chacon, south point of Prince of Wales Island. 54° 42' N., 132° 01' W. 
Carroll Inlet, long, narrow inlet in southern part of Revillagigedo Island. 55° 20' N., 

131° 128' W. 
Chinook River, small tributa-ry of the Columbia near its mouth. 46° 18' N., 123° 58' W. 



110 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

Clackamas River, tributary of the Willamette, Oregon; site of United States hatchery. 

Clarence Strait, main channel east of Prince of Wales Island. 

Cleveland Passage, small strait separated from east side of Fredericlc Sound by Whitney 

Island. 57° 14' N., 133° 30' W^ 
Cleveland Peninsula, extension of the mainland northwest of Revillagigedo Island. 

55°45'N., 132° W. 
Columbia River, large river between Washington and Oregon. 
Deep (Moser) Bay, small liight on west side of Revillagigedo Island below Naha Bay. 

55° 34' N., 131° 39' W. • 

Dixon Entrance, waters between Queen (?harlotte Islands and Alaska. 54° 30' N., 

133° W. 
Dolomi, village on east side of Prince of Wales Island just north of Moira Sound. 

55° 08' N., 132' 03' W. 
Dorr Falls, falls on the Naha above Roosevelt Lagoon. See map. 
Dundas Bay, small bay off Cross Sound to the northward. 58° 25' N., 130° 12' W. 
Emma Creek, small creek falling into Jordan Lake. See map. 
Ernest Sound, waters northwest of Cleveland Peninsula, opening into Clarence Strait. 

55° 50' N., 132° 15' W\ 
Flume Creek, small creek near Loring. See map. 
Fortmann Hatchery, Alaska Packers' Association hatchery on Heckman Lake. See 

map. 
Eraser River, largest river of British Columbia. 49° 06' N., 123° 08' W. 
Gibson Creek, small creek falling into Jordan Lake. See map. 
Harvester Island, island in mouth of Uyak Bay, Kodiak Island. 
Hechnan Lake, second fresh-water lake of the Naha system. See map. 
Helm. Bay Creek, stream in southern part of Cleveland Peninsula. 55° 38' N. , 131° 58' W. 
Hetta, an inlet, lake, and stream on west side of Prince of Wales Island. 55° 08' N., 

132° 36' W. 
Hirsch Rapids, tidal rapids at head of Naha Bay. See map. 
Humboldt Harbor, small bight on west side of Popof Island, Shumagin group. 55° 20' 

N., 160° 32' W; 
Isanotski Strait, water separating Unimak Island imm Alaska Peninsula. 54° 53' 

N., 163° 23' W. 
Jordan Lake, first fresh-water lake of the Naha system. See map. 
Juan de Fuca Strait, waters between Vancouver Island and Washington, connecting 

Puget Sound with the Pacific Ocean. 48° 30' N., 124° 40' W. 
Juneau, town on mainland, nf)rthern part of Southeast Alaska. 58° 18' N., 134° 24' W. 
Karluk, village on west side Kodiak Island. 57° 35' N., 154° 18' W. The bay, lagoon, 

river, and lake adjacent of same name. 
Karta Bay, small bight at head of Kasaan Bay. 55° 35' N., 132° 34' W. River and 

lakes of same name. 
Kasaan Bay, inlet on east side of Prince of Wales Island. 55° 25' N., 132° 10' W. 
Kegan, small stream, lake, and bight opening into Moira Sound. 55° 01' N., 

132° 10' W. 
Ketchikan Creek, small stream on west side of Revillagigedo Island, falling into Tongass 

Narrows. 55° 21' N., 131° 38' W. Town of same name. 
Kilisut Harbor, long, naiTow, shallow inlet opposite town of Port Townsend, Wash. 

48° 04' N., 122° 43' W. 
Killisnoo, village on west side of Admiralty Island. 57° 28' N., 134° 34' W. 
Kiska Island, one of the Aleutian Islands. 52° N., 178° 30' W. 
Klawak, village, stream, and lake on west side Prince of Wales Island. 55° 33' N., 

133° 07' W. 
Kodiak, village on east side of Kodiak Island. 57° 48' N., 152° 24' W. 
Kodiak Island, large island on west side of the Gulf of Alaska. 57° 30' N., 153° 30' W. 
Komandorskis, group of islands east of Kamchatka. 55° N., 174° W. 
Kvichak River, main stream at the head of Bristol Bay. 58° 55' N., 157° W. 



SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. Ill 

Lake Creek, the outlet of Seaton Lake, British Columbia. 

Larsen Cove (or Bay), bight off west side of Uyak Bay. 57° 33' N., 153° 53' W. 
Loring, village on Naha Bay, Revillagigedo Island. 55° 3G' N., 131° 38' W. See map. 
Lytton, town of British Columbia at the junction of the Thompson with the Fraser. 
Mare Island, island in north part of San Pablo Bay, California. 38° 04' N., 122° 16' W. 
McCloud River, tributary of the Saeramento (Pit) in northern California. 40° 45' N., 

122° 20' W. 
McCune Creek, small stream falling into head of Heckman Lake. See map. 
Metlakatla, village on west side of Annette Island. 55° 08' N., 131° 34' W. 
Moira Sound, branching inlet on east side of southern end of Prince of Wales Island. 

55° 05' N., 132° W. 
Monterey Bay, bay in central part of California coast. 36° 45' N., 122° W. 
Naha Bay, bight on west side of Revillagigedo Island. 55° 36' N., 131° 40' W. River 

of same name. 
Neu) Morzhovoi, village on east side Isanotski Strait. 54° 54' N., 163° 18' W. 
•New Red (Ayakulik) River, stream of the southwestern part of Kodiak Island. 57° 11' 

N., 154° 30' W. 
Nichols Passage, water west of Annette Island, between Clarence Strait and Tongass 

Narrows. 
Nicolai's barabara, an old barabara in Karluk Paver below the lake. 
NikolsH, anchorage at Bering Island. 

North Arvi, northern arm of Moira Sound. 55° 05' N., 132° 04' W. 
Noiviskay, lake and stream emptying into North Arm. 55° 07' N., 132° 08' W. 
Oakland, city on San Francisco Bay, California. 
Old Johnson, lake and stream emptying into Moira Sound from the south. 54° 59' N., 

132° 06' W. 
Osten Cree^, main stream at head of Quadra Lake. 

Otter Bay, small bight on west side of Pender Island. 48° 48' N., 123° 18' W. 
Otter Point, projection of Vancouver Island into Juan de Fuca Strait. 48° 21' N., 123° 

49' W. 
Ozette Lake, small lake in northwestern part of Washington. 48° 05' N., 124° 40' W. 
Papermill Creek, small creek tributary to Tomales Bay, California, just above San 

Francisco. 38° 10' N., 122° 50' W. 
Patching Lake, third fresh-water lake of the Naha system. See map. 
Pavlof Harbot, small bight off Freshwater Bay, Chicagof Island, Southeast Alaska. 

57° 41' N., 135° 01' W. 
Payette River, tributary of the Snake River in western Idaho. 44° 05' N., 116° 58' W. 
Pender Island, small island north of Haro Strait. 48° 47' N., 123° 16' W. 
Peninsula of Alaska, the long peninsula in the southwest of Alaska. 
Point Addffiis, point of Prince of Wales Island north of Moira Sound. 55° 07' N. , 132° W. 
Point Iliggins, westernmost point of Revillagigedo Island. 55° 27' N., 131° 50' W. 
Port Alexander, bay on east side Nigci Island, southern part of Queen Charlotte Sound. 

50° 50' N., 127° 40' W. 
Port Chester, bay indenting Annette Island on the west. 
Prince of Wales Island, largest island of Alexander Archipelago, Southeast Alaska. 

55° 30' N., 133° W. 
Puget Sound, large sound in northwestern Washington. 
Quadra. (See Boca de Quadra.) 
Quesnel Dam, a point on the Fraser River. 
Revillagigedo Island, large island in the southern part of Alexander Archipelago. 

55° 30' N., 131° 30' W. 
Rivers Inlet, inlet of British Columbia, south end of Hecate Strait. 51° 26' N., 127° 

40' W. 
Roosevelt Lagoon, body of brackish water at mouth of the Naha River. See map. 

10731—07 8 



112 SALMON AND TROUT IN ALASKA. 

Sacramento, rivor and city of California. 

Salmon River, tributary of Snake River, western Idaho. 45° 50' N., Il6° 50' W. 

San Pablo Bay, bay above San Francisco Bay. 38° 05' N., 122° 2.3' W. 

Seton Lake, large lake of the Fraser system, British Columbia. 

Shclikof Strait, waters between Kodiak Island and Alaska Peninsula. 

Shelter Island, island at the head of Stephens Passage. 58° 26' N., 134° 51' W. 

Sherringhavi Point, projection of Vancouver Island into Strait of Juan de Fuca. 48° 

23' N., 123° 55' W. 
Shumagin Islands, grou}? south of Alaska Peninsula. 55° N., 160° W. 
South Olga Stream, stream entering southern end of Olga Bay, southern part of Kodiak 

Island. 57° 06' N., 154° 20' W. 
Spacious Bay, bay on east side of neck of Cleveland Peninsula. 55° 51' N., 131° 46' W. 
Steelhead Creek, small creek falling into Naha Bay. See map. 

Stikine River, large river from mainland in Southeast Alaska. 55° 36' N., 132° 22' W. 
Sucia Islands, small group just south of Georgia Strait. 48° 46' N., 122° 54' W. 
Suisun Bay, bay above San Pablo Bay, receiving the Sacramento River. 38°07'N.,» 

122° W. 
Sumner Harbor (Bay), small bay northeast of town of Unalaska. 53° 54' N. , 166° 27' W. 
Susquehanna River, river in eastern Pennsylvania. 

Tamgas, inlet in the southern part of Annette Island. 53° 01' N. , 131° 32' W. 
Tehama, town on the Sacramento River, California, near head of steamboat navigation. 
Thompson River, tributary of the Fraser from the east, in British Columbia. 50° 03' N., 

120° 10' W. 
Thome Bay. small inlet on east side of Prince of Wales Island, north of Kasaan Bay. 

55°40'N., 132° 27' W. 
Tongass Narroivs, reach on southwest side of Revillagigedo Island connecting Belim 

('anal with Revillagigedo channel. 
Trail Creek, small creek connecting Trout Ponds with Roosevelt Lagoon. See map. 
Tribune Bay, small bight on south side of Hornby Island. 49° 31' N., 124° 38' W. 
Trocadero, aquarium at Paris, France. 
Trotd Ponds, two small lakes near Loring. See map. 

Ugaguk, large stream falling into Bristol Bay from the east. 58° 14' N., 157° 34' W. 
Uganuk, bay in the north side of Kodiak Island. 57° 54' N., 153° 30' W. 
Umnak Island, one of the Aleutian Islands, lying about 53° 15' N., 168° 15' W. 
Unalaska, town on the north side of Unalaska Island. 53° 52' N., 166° 32' W. 
Union Bay, small bight off Baynes Sound, east side of Vancouver Island. 49° 35' N., 

124° 54' W. 
Unuk River, large river falling into Burroughs Bay at head of Revillagigedo Island. 

56° 03' N., 131° 07' W. 
Uyak Bay, deep inlet on west side of Kodiak Island. 57° 45' N., 153° 53' W- 
Wallowa River, river in northeastern Oregon, tributary to the Grande Ronde. 46° 03' 

N.,40°03' W. 
Walnut Grove, village on the Sacramento River, between Sacramento and Suisun Bay. 
Wanmik River, tributary of Rivers Inlet, British Columbia. 
Ward Cove, small bay on west side of Revillagigedo Island, between Point Higgins and 

Ketchikan. 
Whidby Island, large island in the northern part of Puget Sound. 48° 09' N. , 122° 34' W. 
Willainette River, large river of western Oregon, tributary to the Columbia. 
Willow Creek, one of two main tributaries entering head of upper Karta Lake. 
Wood River, large river emptying into Bristol Bay from the north. 59° N., 158° 23' W. 
Wrangell town in north end of Wrangell Island. 56° 28' N., 132° 22' W. 
Yes Bay, narrow inlet on east side of neck of Cleveland Peninsula opening into Behm 

Canal. 55° 53' N., 131° 42' W. Lake and stream of same name. Site of United 

States hatchery 

o 



U. S. B, F.— Doc. 627. 



Plate I. 




1. S()(/kevf fr\ 




2. Sockuye no. 1 fiiigt^rliiig. 




:i. Humpback saluujii fr\ 




•1. King salmon IK). I (ingorling. 




5. Uog .salmon fr 



il. Coho l"r\-. 





MIGRATING YOUNG OF ALASKA SALMON AND TROUT. 
tNalunil .size.) 



U, S. B. F. — Doc. 627. 



Plate II. 




1. SOCKEYE FINGERLING. 
( NiUuriil .si/c'.) 




2. HUMPBACK SALMON FINGERLING. 
t Xatui-al ■<i/,L'. i 




3. DOG SALMON FINGERLING. 
Natural ^i/.v. i 




4. COHO NO. 2 FINGERLING. 
(Natural size. ) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 627. 



Plate II 




%, 




J' 



USB F— Doc. 627, 



Plate IV. 





< „ 

LLl OS 

> S 



y 



F.— Doc. 627. 



Plate V. 




LEJe'08 



